whole blood
consists of plasma and formed elements of blood
plasma
matrix of blood
formed elements
RBCs, WBCs, and platelets in the blood
buffy coat
small semi-clear layer directly above packed RBCs after centrifugation
hematocrit
percentage of formed elements in a volume of whole blood
albumins
-most abundant plasma protein
-transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, some steroid hormones, and other substances
transportation, regulation of pH and ion composition, prevent blood loss, defense against toxins and pathogens, stabilize body temperature
5 functions of blood
gases, nutrients, hormones, waste products
4 things transported in blood
maintains calcium and K+ in tissues; neutralized lactic acid
how does blood help regulate pH and ion composition?
clotting
how does blood help prevent blood loss?
WBCs and antibody transport
how does blood help defend against toxins and pathogens?
absorbs heat generated in muscles and redistributes it
how does blood help stabilize body temperature?
46-63% plasma, 37-54% formed elements
composition of blood
average 7.4 (7.35-7.45)
pH of blood (average and range)
38 degrees C (100.4 degrees F)
temperature of blood
5x as viscous as water
viscosity of blood
0.9% NaCl
salt concentration of blood
7%
percent of body weight
4-5 L for females, 5-6 L for men
volume of blood in body
centrifugation
allows for separation of plasma and formed elements
volume of packed RBCS/volume of whole blood X 100%
calculation for hematocrit
males 46 (40-54), females 42 (37-47)
normal hematocrit for males and females - average and range
92% water, 7% plasma proteins, 1% other solutes
composition of plasma
albumins
transports fatty acids, thyroid hormones, some steroid hormones and other substances
globulins
-antibodies: immunoglobulins
-transport: binds small ions, hormones, and compounds
fibrinogen
-important for blood clotting
-is converted to fibrin which forms long strands
regulatory proteins
-peptide hormones in plasma (insulin and prolactin)
-glycoproteins (TSH, FSH, LH)
electrolytes
-inorganic ions found in blood plasma
-Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, Cl-, HCO3-, HPO4-, SO4--
organic nutrients
-found in blood plasma
-used for ATP production, growth, and maintenance of cells
-lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids
organic wastes
-found in blood plasma
-urea, uric acid, creatinine, bilirubin, ammonium ions
albumins
most abundant plasma protein
electrolytes, organic nutrients, organic wastes
3 comment solutes in blood plasma
biconcave disk, no nucleus
structure of RBCs
carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
function of RBCs
120 days
lifespan of RBCs
erythropoesis
formation of red blood cells
proerythroblast
-comes from myeloid stem cell in red bone marrow
-first stage in formation of RBC
reticulocyte
-immature RBC
-formed after loss of nucleus
-forms erythrocyte after entering circulation
erythropoetin
hormone that regulates RBC production
anemia, decreased blood flow to kidneys, O2 content of air in lungs decreases, respiratory surface of lungs is damaged
4 causes for erythropoetin release
stimulates increased division of erythroblasts, speeds up maturation of reticulocytes
2 effects of erythropoetin release
90% engulfed, 10% hemolysis
2 ways RBCs are degraded
lysozomes digest RBC, breaks hemoglobin into heme and globin, heme into biliverdin into bilirubin, bilirubin to liver and secreted into bile, sent to large intestine, products to kidney or continues in intestines, excreted
process of RBC degradation involving macrophage engulfing
ruptures then pieces are engulfed by macrophages
process of RBC degradation involving hemolysis
globulins
-plasma protein
-antibodies: immunoglobulins
-transport: binds small ions, hormones, and compounds
fibrinogen
-plasma protein
-important for blood clotting
electrolytes
insoluble inorganic compounds that dissociate into ions
erythrocyte
RBC
hemoglobin
95% of RBC's intracellular protein
oxyhemoglobin
-oxygen bound to heme group of hemoglobin
-generally associated with arteries
-bright red color
deoxyhemoglobin
-heme not bound to oxygen
-generally associated with veins
-dark red/burgundy
carbaminohemoglobin
-hemoglobin with CO2 bound to alpha and beta chains
erythropoesis
formation of red blood cells
erythropoetin
-hormone made either in kidneys or synthetically
-regulates RBC production
biliverdin
waste product of RBC degradation (green in color)
bilirubin
waste product of RBC degradation (yellow in color)
urobilins
-derived from bilirubin
-secreted in urine
-gives it yellow color
stercobilins
-derived from bilirubin
-secreted in feces
-gives it brown color
agglutinogen
antigen on surface of RBC
agglutinins
antibodies found in blood plasma
agglutination
clumping of RBCs
hemolysis
rupturing of RBCs
Rh factor
surface antigen first discovered in the Rhesus monkey
diapedsis
WBCs squeeze between adjacent endothelial cells and enter the surrounding tissue
quartenary structure
type of structure of hemoglobin
4 protein chains (2 alpha 2 beta)
chains of hemoglobin
4 heme groups
special characteristics of hemoglobin (rings containing iron - name and how many?)
heme interacts with oxygen and chains interact with carbon dioxide
function of hemoglobin
split into heme and globin, globin becomes amino acids, heme becomes biliverdin and then bilirubin
how is hemoglobin degraded in the body?
A, B, AB, O
4 blood groups
surface antigens
how are blood groups characterized?
type A
antigen A, anti-B antibodies
type B
antigen B, anti-A antibodies
type AB
antigens A and B, no antibodies
type O
no surface antigens, has anti-A and anti-B antibodies
recipient's antibodies
when transfusing blood, we are only concerned with...
antibodies, antigens
to find a compatible blood type, we cross-match recipients _____ to donor's _____
type A or O
if the recipient has anti-B anibodies, they can receive...
type B or O
if the recipient has anti-A antibodies, they can receive....
type A, B, AB or O
if the recipient has no antibodies, they can receive...
type O
if the recipient has anti-A and anti-B antibodies, they can receive...
take blood sample, add antibody serum, and if it clumps they have that antigen
how do you determine blood type?
Rh factor
surface antigen of RBCs first discovered in Rhesus monkeys
positive
in regards to Rh factor, most of the population is Rh _____
mom is Rh- and child is Rh+
when does Rh factor potentially cause hemolytic disease of the newborn?
pregnancy after having an Rh- child
when does hemolytic disease of the newborn affect the child
mom develops antibodies after being in contact with Rh- child
why does hemolytic disease of the newborn occur?
less numerous, have a nucleus, no hemoglobin, defense
4 general properties of WBCs
granular and agranular
how are WBCs classified?
granular leukocytes
contain large cytoplasmic granules
agranular leukocytes
do not contain large cytoplasmic granules visible under microscope
neutrophil
-most abundant leukocytes (50-70%)
-dense, segmented nucleus (3-5 lobes like beads on a string)
-contain large, pale granules
neutrophil
-highly mobile
-attack and digest bacteria labeled with antibodies
-very short lifespan (30 minutes-10 hours)
eosinophil
-2-4% of leukocytes
-contain bilobed nucleus
-deep red granules
eosinophil
-release toxic compounds that target and kill multicellular parasites
-increase in number during allergic reactions
-help reduce degree and spread of inflammation
basophil
-least abundant leukocytes (<1%)
-contain numerous large, dark purple granules (look like berries)
-U-shaped nucleus
basophil
-migrate to injury sites
-release large amounts of histamine (causes inflammation - attracts other leukocytes)
-also releases heparin (anti-coagulant)
monocyte
-2-8% of leukocytes
-very large (2x size of RBC)
-large nucleus: oval/kidney bean shaped
monocyte
-enters peripheral tissues to become a macrophage
-phagocytosis
-release chemicals to attract neutrophils and monocytes
lymphocyte
-20-30% of leukocytes
-large nucleus surrounded by thick halo of cytoplasm
-only slightly larger than RBC
lymphocyte
-migrate through blood into tissues and back
-defend against specific pathogens
-T and B cells
begin as myeloid stem cells, become myeloblasts, myelocytes, band cells and finally different granulocytes
how are granular leukocytes produced
begin as myeloid stem cells, become monoblasts, promonocytes, and finally monocytes
how are monocytes produced?
begin as lymphoid stem cells, become lymphoblasts, prolymphocytes, and finally lymphocytes
how are lymphocytes produced?
colony stimulating factor (csf)
stimulates production of monocytes and granulocytes
exposure to antigens
regulates lymphocyte production
thrombocytopoesis
platelet formation
red bone marrow
where does platelet formation occur?
platelets
small, membrane-bound cell fragments that contain enzymes and other substances important to clotting
hemostasis
stoppage of bleeding in a damaged vessel
vascular phase, platelet phase, coagulation phase
3 phases of hemostasis
vascular phase of hemostasis
-cutting of vessel wall causes contraction of smooth muscle
-vascular spasm decreases diameter of vessel
-minimizes blood loss until clot forms
platelet phase of hemostasis
-platelets begin to attach to exposed vessel surface
-platelets release various chemicals causing more platelets to adhere
coagulation phase of hemostasis
-clotting
-involves Ca++ and 11 different clotting factors
activated factor X converted to prothrombinase that catalyzes conversion of prothrombin into thrombin which catalyzes conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin and forms clot
common pathway of coagulation
extrinsic factor
-1st pathway to initiate blood clotting
-triggered by factors that lie outside of the blood
intrinsic factor
-triggered by platelets in the blood
-2nd pathway to initiate blood clotting
calcium and Vitamin K
regulate clotting
embolus
-moving clot
-can become stuck in blood vessels and block circulation in that area
thrombus
-stationary blood clot
-can dislodge and become embolus
anticoagulants
prevent unwanted blood clots
heparin
anticoagulant released by activated basophils and mast cells
antithrombin III
anticoagulant that inhibits several clotting factors including thrombin
thrombomodulin
released by endothelial cells, binds to thrombin, and converts it to an enzyme that activates Protein C
Protein C
plasma protein that inactivates several clotting factors and stimulates the formation of plasmin
chemotaxis
chemical stimuli that attract leukocytes
leukocyte
white blood cell
neutrophil
-most abundant leukocyte
-dense, segmented nucleus with 3-5 lobes
-first responders
eosinophil
-contain bilobed nucleus
-deep red granules
-release toxic chemicals that target parasites
-help reduce degree and spread of inflammation
basophil
-least abundant leukocyte
-numerous large, dark purple granules
-U shaped nucleus
-release heparin and histamine
monocyte
-very large leukocytes
-large oval/kidney bean shaped nucleus
-macrophage; phagocytosis
lymphocyte
-large nucleus surrounded by thick halo of cytoplasm
-slightly larger than a RBC
-defend against specific pathogens
platelets
small, membrane-bound cell fragments that contain enzymes and other substances important to clotting
thrombocytopoiesis
platelet formation
megakaryocyte
-found in red bone marrow
-can produce up to 4000 platelets
hemostasis
stoppage of bleeding in a damaged vessel
factor X
plasma protein made in the liver that gets converted to prothrombinase during coagulation
prothrombinase
active enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of prothrombin
prothrombin
inactive enzyme that gets converted to thrombin
thrombin
active enzyme that catalyzes conversion of fibrinogen
fibrin
insoluble threads of blood clot
fibrinolysis
dissolving a blood clot
embolus
-moving clot
-becomes stuck in blood vessels and blocks circulation in that area
thrombus
-stationary blood clot
-can dislodge
heparin
anticoagulant released by activated basophils and mast cells
antithrombin III
anticoagulant that inhibits several clotting factors including thrombin
thrombomodulin
released by endothelial cells, binds to thrombin, and converts it to an enzyme that activates Protein C
plasminogen
inactive enzyme in blood plasma that is converted to plasmin
plasmin
active enzyme that digests blood clots