Veins
Dissolved minerals from igneous rocks by water which precipitate into concentrated deposits
Oceanic Plates
Lie underneath ocean. Dense and rich in iron
Subsurface Mining
Tunnels within mountain where people go in.
Placer Mining
Process of looking for metals and precious stones in river sediments
Mountaintop Removal
Miners remove entire top of a mountain with explosives
Open pit mining
Create large pit or hole in ground to mine
Mining Spoils/Tailings
Unwanted waste material created during mining.
Strip Mining
Minerals close to the surface, remove soil and rock to expose them, then return unwanted waste material.
Metals
Elements with properties that conduct electricity and heat
Soil Degradation
Loss of some or all of the ability of soils to support plant growth.
Texture of soil
Determined by percentage of sand, silt, and clay
C Horizon
Least weathered. Most similar to parent material
B Horizon
Mineral material, little organic matter
E Horizon
Leaches organic acids from above layers to B where they accumulate
A Horizon
Topsoil. Organic material and minerals
O Horizon
Top layer. Organic horizon and detritus.
Parent Material
Rock material underlying a soil
Soil
Mix of geologic and organic components
Deposition
Accumulation or depositing of eroded material
Erosion
Physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem
Acid Precipitation
Acid rain. Sulfur Dioxide reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid in rain.
Chemical Weathering
Breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions and dissolving of a rocks chemical elements. Alters newly exposed/primary minerals to make secondary minerals.
Physical Weathering
Mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals. Water, wind, or temp. Plants or burrowing animals can contribute. Exposing more surface area and makes more vulnerable to more erosion.
Metamorphic Rocks
Other rick types subjected to high temps and pressure causing physical and chemical changes. Pressure creates distorted bands called foliation.
Sedimentary Rocks
Form by sediments like muds, sands, and gravels compressed by overlying sediments. Can be uniform or different. Contains the most fossils.
Fractures
Cracks caused by stress after cooling
Igneous Rocks
Forms directly from magma. Classified by composition and mode of formation
Minerals
Solid, Crystalline, Specific chemical structure, certain formations, uniform
Rock Cycle
Constant formation and destruction of rock.
Richter Scale
Measure of ground movement in an earthquake. Logarithmic scale.
Seismic Activity
Areas with earthquakes and fault activity
Earthquakes
Rocks of the lithosphere rupture unexpectedly along a fault. Common in fault zones.
Fault Zones
Large expanses of rock where movement had occurred where plates meet.
Fault
Fracture in rock across which there is movement
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Plates move towards one another. Continental + Continental= Mountains. Oceanic goes under land, forms mountains and volcanos. Oceanic goes under other oceanic.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
Magma pushes up and out, making new rocks and bringing copper, lead, and silver, however it is deep under ocean.
Volcano
Vent in Earth's surface. Emits ash, gas, and molten lava. Can be caused by hotspots or convergent plates.
Continental Plates
Lie beneath landmasses. Contains more silicon dioxide. Plates less dense than oceanic.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion
Hot Spots
Places where molten material from the mantle reaches lithosphere. Causes volcanoes. Also helps create convection cells
Lithosphere
Solid upper mantle and crust. Overlaps with upper mantle. Made of plates with thin layer of soil.
Asthenosphere
Outer part of mantle. Made of semi-molten, ductile rock.
Magma
Molten rock in mantle
Core
1st and innermost layer. Split into inner and outer. Inner is solid, outer liquid. Made of nickel and iron.
Mantle
Molten rock that slowly circulates in convection cells. 2nd layer from center.
tragedy of the commons
the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain
externality
the unintended side effect of an action that affects something not involved in the action and is not included in the purchasing price etc.
maximum sustainable yield
the maximum amount that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource
national park
a tract of land declared by the national government to be public property used for scientific, educational, and recreational use
managed resource protected areas
allows for the sustained use of biological, mineral, and recreational resources
protected landscapes and seascapes
areas combined with the nondestructive use of natural resources with oppurtunities for tourism and recreation (orchards, villages, beaches)
national monuments
areas set aside to protect unique sites of special natural or cultural interest
resource conservation ethic
states that people should maximize resource use based on the greatest good for everyone (economic, scientific,recreational, and aesthetic)
multiple use lands
public lands that can be used for recreation, grazing, timber harvesting, and mineral extraction, wildlife preserving, or scentific research
Bureau of Land Management
(BML) used for grazing, mining, timber harvesting, and recreation
US Forest Service
(USFS) used for timber harvesting, grazing, and recreation
National Park Service
(NPS) used for recreation and conservation
US Fish and Wildlife Service
(FWS) used for wildlife conservation, hunting, and recreation
rangelands
dry, open grasslands used for cattle grazing (the most common use for land in the USA)
clearcutting
a timber harvesting technique that involves removing all or almost all the trees within an area. This has a big short term profit.
Quick growing trees will do well with a lot of sunlight. This technique increases wind and water erosion, sediments nearby s
selective cutting
a timber harvesting technique that involves the removal of sins trees or relatively ssmal numbers of trees from among many in a forest. This produces optimum growth from shade tolerant trees. It is a less extensively damaging technique. Transporting logs
ecologically sustainable forestry
an approach that has a goal of maintaining all species in as close a natural state as possible
tree plantations
large areas typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species
prescribed burn
a deliberate fire set to reduce the accumulation of dead biomass
National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) An act from 1969 that mandates an environmental assessment of all projects involving federal money or federal permits
Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) A NEPA rule that require an outline of the scope and purpose of a federal project. It must describe the environmental context, suggest alternative aproaches to the project and analyzes the environmental impact of each alternative
Environmental mitigation plan
a plan that states how a developer will address the environmental impact of a project or building
Endangered Species Act of 1973
A 1973 law designed to protect species from extinction
National wildlife refuges
the only federal public lands managed for the primary purpose of protecting wildlife
National wilderness areas
areas set aside with the intent of preserving large tracts of intact ecosystems or landscapes
suburban
areas sourrounding metropolitan centers with low population densities
exurban
similar to suburban areas but not connected to any central city or densely populated area
urban sprawl
the creation of urbanized areas that spread into rural areas and remove clear boundaries between the two
urban blight
the degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs
zoning
a planning tool developed in the 20s to seperate industry and business from residential neighborhoods
smart growth
stratagies that encourage the development of sustainable healthy communities. They include mixed land uses, creating choice in housing opportunities and walkable neighborhoods, compact building design, a sense of place, preserved spaces of beauty, vareity
stakeholders
poeple with an interest in a particular place or issue
infill
the process of filling in empty or rundown parts of a city with new development
eminent domain
the right of the state to take private property for public use
Undernutrition
Not consuming enough calories to be healthy.
Malnourished
(3 billion, 1/2 of population). Regardless of calories, diets lack the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minters and they experience this.
Food Security
Condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life.
Food Insecurity
Refers to the condition in which people do not have adequate access to food.
Famine
Condition in which food insecurity is so extreme that large #'s of deaths occur in a given area over a relatively short period.
Anemia
- Iron deficiency is the most widespread nutritional deficiency in the world. (Est. 3 billion)
Overnutrition
The ingestion of too many calories and improper foods, which causes a person to become overweight (Est. 1 billion).
Meat
2nd largest component of the human diet is usually defined as livestock and poultry.
Industrial Agriculture/Agribusiness
Applies the techniques of the Industrial Revolution - Mechanization and standardization - to the production of food.
Energy subsidy
Energy input per calorie of food produced. (5 calories of energy for food input, even if you get 1 calorie in return, the subsidy is still 5.)
Green Revolution
New management techniques and mechanization as well as the triad of fertilization, irrigation and improved crop varieties. These changes increased food production drastically.
Mechanization
Machines do work to increase more of a profit than humans could do for a better price. Not necessarily replacing humans
Economics of scale
Average costs of production fall as the output increases.
Irrigation
Can increase crop production to grow crops in places where crops normally couldn't grow. Good land becomes great land because of the extra water.
Waterlogging
When soil remains under water for prolonged periods and impairs root growth because roots can't get oxygen.
Salinization
Occurs when the small amounts of salts in irrigation water become highly concentrated on the soil surface through evaporation.
Fertilizers
Agriculture removes organic matter and nutrients. This replaces the nutrient levels to help with crop growth.
Organic Fertilizers
Composed of organic matter from plants and animals. Manure, etc.
Synthetic/Inorganic
Produced commercially. Nitrogen fertilizers are often made by combusting natural gas.
Monocropping
Dominant agricultural practice in the U.S. Where large patches of land grow only one kind of crop. -> Soil degredation
Pesticides
Substances that kill or control pests.
Insecticides
Target species of insects and other invertebrates that eat crops.
Herbicides
Target plant species that compete with crops.
Broad-Spectrum
Pesticides that kill many different pests.
Selective Pesticides
Kill on a narrow range of organisms.
Persistent
Pesticides that remain in the environment for a long time
Bioaccumulation
Building up over time in fat tissue of predators.
Nonperisistent
Breakdown rapidly
Resistant
Those individuals who survive the pesticide
Pesticide Treadmill
Positive feedback system. Pesticide Development -> Survivors/Immune -> more poisons.
Conventional Agriculture
Industrial agriculture that has been so successful in reducing labor inputs and has become very widespread.
Shifting Agriculture
Clearing land and using it for only a few years until the soil is depleted of nutrients.
Desertification
Irrigation -> salinization, topsoil eroded away because the shallow roots of annual crops can't hold it in place.
Nomadic Grazing
Move herds of animals to seasonally productive grounds.
Sustainable Agriculture
Fulfills the need for food and fiber while enhancing the quality of soil, minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources and allowing economic viability for the farmer.
Intercropping
2 or more crop species are planted in the same field at the same time to promote a synergistic interaction between them.
Crop Rotation
Moving crops around to help keep nutrient levels high throughout the years.
Agroforestry
Intercropping trees with vegetables allows vegetation of different heights to act a windbreaks and catch soil.
Contour Plowing
Plowing and harvesting parallel to the topographic contours of the land helps prevent erosion by water.
No-Till Agriculture
Avoid soil degradation that comes with conventional agricultural techniques.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Uses a variety of techniques designed to minimize pesticide outputs.
Organic Agriculture
Production of crops without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers.
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFO)
Which are large indoor or outdoor structures designed for maximum output.
Fishery
Commercially harvestable population of fish within an ecological region.
Fishery Collapse
Decline of a fish population by at least 90%
Bycatch
Unintentional Catches. Significantly reduced population of fish species such as sharks and endangered other organisms.
Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs)
Fishery managers establish a total allowable catch and distribute quotas to individual fishers or companies.
Aquaculture
Farmings of aquatic organisms like shellfish, fish or seaweed.