learning by summary: Theoretical Rationale
- Summarizing involves selecting the main ideas from the lesson, organizing them into a more concise cognitive representation, and integrating them with prior knowledge by restating the material in one's own words.
learning by mapping: Example
- Learners read a passage about first aid for wounds as they create a map showing the key concepts in ovals and the relations among them as labeled lines (such as "part of" or "type of" or "leads to").
- Learners are asked to read a lesson on steamboats a
knowledge mapping
description:
constraint:
- Spatial arrangement of nodes and links with a predetermined set of links (such as "part of" or "leads to")
- Somewhat constrained
Learning by Drawing: Boundary Conditions
- The self-generated drawing effect may be strongest when learners receive explicit instruction in what to draw, extraneous cognitive load is reduced by providing partially drawn illustrations, or when learners receive more support such as comparing one's
self explaining: Theoretical Rationale
- Self-explanation involves selecting relevant material from the lesson and reorganizing it into a coherent cognitive representation that can be integrated with the learner's prior knowledge, in order to fill in gaps or repair inaccurate mental models.
self explaining
Chi, DeLeeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher(1994)
RESULTS
- Students who explain do better on subsequent test than control
- Students in the self-explanation group showed a much greater improvement on transfer that went beyond simple retention of the facts, such as "why doesn't the pulmonary vein have a valve in
learning by teaching: Integrating
- Learners explain the material to others by making connections between the material and their existing knowledge
learning by teaching: organizing
- Learners rearrange the selected information into a coherent explanation to provide to others.
Learning by Self-Testing: Boundary Conditions
- The self-testing effect may be strongest when learners receive corrective feedback following practice testing, when practice tests are in a free or cued recall format (e.g., short-answer) rather than a recognition format (e.g., multiple-choice), when le
Learning Strategies definition
- Activity that the learner engages in during learning, with the intention of improving the learning outcome
three parts of the definition of learning
- 1) a learning strategy involves intentional cognitive processing by the learners
- 2) a learning strategy occurs at the time of learning
- 3) a learning strategy is intended to improve learning
learning by summary: definition
- Learners restate the main ideas of a lesson in their own words.
learning by summary: Example
Students are asked to read a history lesson and to write a summary sentence stating the main idea after each paragraph in their own words
learning by summary: Empirical Rationale
- The summarization effect is upheld in 25 of 29 tests, yielding a median effect size of d = 0.50
learning by summary: boundary conditions
- The summarization effect may be strongest when students receive instruction in how to summarize effectively, and when the content of the lesson does not contain complex spatial relations (such as physics or chemistry concepts
learning by summary: Applications
- Summarizing can be applied as a note-taking strategy for learning from text passages and from lecture-based instruction, and for topics within the social sciences and humanities, as well as narratives.
learning by summary
Doctorow, Wittrock, & Marks (1978)
METHOD
- asked elementary school students to read a passage and then recall the passage.
- Some students were asked to generate a summary sentence that expressed the main idea for each paragraphs (summary group) some students were given a two-word heading for ea
learning by summary
Doctorow, Wittrock, & Marks (1978)
RESULTS
- For both good and poor readers the summary group retained over 50% more information than did the control group and this advantage was enhanced when headings were provided for each paragraph
learning by summary
Doctorow, Wittrock, & Marks (1978)
CONCLUSION
- Wittrock argued that subjects who write summaries engage in generating learning�generating connections among ideas in the passage rather than memorization specific words
Three Cognitive Processes Activated by Summarizing
- selecting
- organizing
- integrating
summarizing: selecting
- Learners choose which pieces of information are most important for inclusion in the summary.
summarizing: Organizing
- Learners relate the pieces of information to each other within a coherent summary.
summarizing: Integrating
- By having to use their own words, learners relate the material to relevant prior knowledge
learning by mapping: definition
- Learners create a spatial map containing key words and relations among them
learning by mapping: Theoretical Rationale
- Asking learners to create spatial maps showing key concepts and relations among them encourages them to identify key words in the text for nodes (i.e., engage in the cognitive process of selecting) and spatially arrange the words in their map (i.e., eng
learning by mapping: Empirical Rationale
- The mapping effect is upheld in 23 out of 25 tests involving concept maps yielding a median effect size of d = 0.62,
- 5 out of 6 tests involving knowledge maps yielding a median effect size of d = 0.43
- 8 out of 8 tests involving matrix graphic organi
learning by mapping: Boundary Conditions
- The mapping effect is strongest when learners are low in experience or ability (d = 0.45 based on 4 comparisons) rather than high (d = -0.08 based on 4 comparisons).
- Younger learners may benefit from guidance during learning such as providing partiall
learning by mapping: Applications
- Mapping can be an effective learning strategy especially for less able learners, but the material must have a coherent structure and the students need extensive training before learning and guidance during learning.
learning by mapping:
Ponce & Mayer (2014)
METHOD
- See a paragraph on left side of computer screen and have to make a graphic organizer on right side of screen
- Other set of students just have to read it
learning by mapping:
Ponce & Mayer (2014)
RESULTS
- Those who have to make a map of the information do better on a recall test and on a memory test (cloze test)
learning by mapping:
Ponce & Mayer (2014)
CONCLUSION
- Mapping can be effective but it can also be tedious
Three Types of Mapping
- Concept mapping
- Knowledge Mapping
- Graphic organizer mapping
Concept mapping
description:
constraint:
- Spatial arrangement of nodes and links
- Least constrained
Graphic organizer mapping
- Spatial arrangement of nodes within a predetermined structure (such as a matrix or flow chart)
- Most constrained
Three Cognitive Processes Activated by Mapping
- selecting
- organizing
- integrating
mapping: selecting
- Learners focus on or choose which concepts to use as nodes
mapping: organizing
- Learners physically arrange the nodes to show the relationships among them.
mapping: integrating
- Learners translate from one mode of representation into another, such as from linear words to spatially arranged words, which requires connecting incoming information with prose structures stored in long-term memory such as compare-and-contrast.
Learning by Drawing: definition
- Learners create a drawing to illustrate the content of a lesson
Learning by Drawing: Example
- Learners are asked to read a lesson on how the human central nervous system works and generate a drawing for each section of the lesson as if making illustrations for a science book
Learning by Drawing: Theoretical Rationale
- Asking learners to create drawings is intended to encourage them to identify key components in the text (i.e., engage in the cognitive process of selecting), spatially arrange the components (i.e., engage in the cognitive process of organizing), and rel
Learning by Drawing: Empirical Rationale
- The self-generated drawing effect is upheld in 26 of 28 tests, yielding a median effect size of d = 0.40.
Learning by Drawing: Applications
- Self-generated drawing applies to learning from scientific text within paper-based learning environments, but students may need guidance in what to draw and support in the mechanics of drawing.
learning by drawing
Schwamborn, mayer, thillma, leopold, and leutner (2011)
METHOD
- Read a passage about how soap works
- Some students just read each paragraph and some students have to read each paragraph and draw a picture for each paragraph
learning by drawing
Schwamborn, mayer, thillma, leopold, and leutner (2011)
RESULTS
- If you create a drawing you do better on a transfer test and on a comprehension test
learning by drawing
Schwamborn, mayer, thillma, leopold, and leutner (2011)
CONCLUSION
Drawback of this technique
-- Not all things you are trying to learn can be drawn
-- Drawing doesnt work sometimes if its just too hard to do
how to improve this technique
- More guidance about the drawing is helpful
- Helpful to telL which parts should b
drawing: selecting
- Learners choose which components to include in their drawing.
drawing: organizing
- Learners arrange the components in a spatial layout.
drawing: integrating
- Learners translate from a verbal to a visual/spatial mode of representation, andmay add verbal annotations to visual/spatial representations.
Learning by Imagining: definition
- Learners form mental images to illustrate the content of a lesson.
Learning by Imagining: Example
- Learners are asked to read a lesson on chemical processes in washing with soap and water and mentally imagine the content of each section of the lesson while reading
Learning by Imagining: Theoretical Rationale
- Asking learners to create mental images is intended to encourage them to identify key components in the text for their image (i.e., engage in the cognitive process of selecting), spatially arrange the components in their image (i.e., engage in the cogni
Learning by Imagining: Empirical Rationale
- The imagination effect is upheld in 16 of 22 tests, yielding a median effect size of d = 0.65
Learning by Imagining: Boundary Conditions
- The imagination effect is strongest when learners are high in experience and when the materials are well designed (d = 0.77 based on 16 comparisons).
Learning by Imagining: Applications
- Imagining applies to learning from well-designed procedural manuals or scientific text within paper-based learning environments, but students may need to possess enough prior knowledge to create useful images
learning by imagining
Leopold & Mayer (2015)
METHOD
- Given a paragraph about how the human heart works
- Right side is paragraph and on left side you are supposed to imaging the image
- One group has to imagine and the other group does not
Learning by Self-Testing: Empirical Rationale
- Overall, the self-testing effect is upheld in 70 of 76 tests, yielding a median effect size of d = 0.57.
Learning by Self-Testing: Theoretical Rationale
- Asking students to self-test allows students to practice accessing previously learned material from long-term memory (i.e., engage in retrieval practice), which may facilitate the processes of organizing and integrating the material with their existing
Learning by Self-Testing: Example
- Learners are asked to read an expository text describing a scientific process and then to take a practice cued-recall test about important facts and concepts from the passage
Learning by Self-Testing: definition
- Learners test themselves on previously studied material by answering practice questions.
Boundary Conditions for Learning by Imagining- conditions that help
- Students have sufficient knowledge and proficiency and instructional materials are well designed
- Learners have sufficient cognitive capacity to engage in imagining
Boundary Conditions for Learning by Imagining- conditions that hurt
- Students lack prior knowledge or proficiency
- Act of imagining creates too much extraneous cognitive processing
- Instructional materials are poorly designed
- Extraneous processing caused by poor design leaves insufficient capacity for imagining
imagining: integrating
- Learners translate from one mode of representation into another, such as from words to pictures, which requires connecting incoming information with knowledge activated from long-term memory.
imagining: organizing
- Learners mentally arrange the components into a spatial layout.
imagining: selecting
- Learners choose which components to put into their image.
learning by imagining
Leopold & Mayer (2015)
RESULTS
- Act of imaging helps students understand material (retention and transfer)
learn by self testing:
ROEDIGER & KARPICKE (2006)
CONCLUSION
- Retrieval practice is helpful.
self testing: selecting
- Learners access essential prior knowledge required to respond to a question.
self explaining: definition
- Learners explain the content of a lesson to themselves by elaborating upon the instructional material presented.
self explaining: Boundary Conditions
- The self-explanation effect may be strongest for studying diagrams and conceptual materials, for learners with low prior knowledge, and when prompting is more focused rather than general
self explaining
Chi, DeLeeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher(1994)
METHOD
- Asked eight graders who had never taken a biology course to read a 101 sentence passage on the human circulatory system
- Some students were told to explain what each sentence means after reading it (self-explanation group) where as others were told to
self explaining: Applications
- Self-explanation applies to learning from text, diagrams, and examples, and within paper-based and computer-based learning environments.
self explaining: empirical rationale
- The self-explanation effect is upheld in 44 of 54 tests, yielding a median effect size of d = .61.
self explaining: example
- Students are asked to read a lesson on how the human circulatory system works and generate self-explanations after each sentence they read to help make sense out of the material
self testing: integrating
- Learners restructure activated prior knowledge when responding to a question by connecting it with other relevant knowledge stored in long-term memory.
self testing: organizing
- Learners rearrange elements of activated knowledge into a coherent response.
learn by self testing:
ROEDIGER & KARPICKE (2006)
RESULTS
- On immediate test study-study group does best
- on delayed test study-test group does best
learn by self testing:
ROEDIGER & KARPICKE (2006)
METHOD
- Read short passage about the sun, then do practice recall or restudy.
Learning by Self-Testing: Applications
- Self-testing applies to learning from expository texts within paper-based learning environments, learning from computer-based multimedia, and learning from lecture-based instruction.
learning by teaching:
Fiorella& Mayer (2013, 2014)
RESULTS
- People who teach do better d=.77, helped both transfer and comprehension
learning by teaching: selecting
- Learners select the most relevant material to include in their explanation to others.
three stages in learning by teaching
- preparing to teach
- explaining to others
- interacting with others
learning by teaching:
Fiorella& Mayer (2013, 2014)
METHOD
- Lesson on Dopler effect
learning by teaching: Applications
- Learning by teaching applies to learning about scientific concepts from text or multimedia, and through interacting with other people or by interacting with a computer-based pedagogical agent.
learning by teaching: Boundary Conditions
- The learning by teaching effect may be strongest when learners study the material with the expectation of later teaching, when they reflect upon their own understanding (i.e., reflective knowledge building) rather than merely restate the material from t
learning by teaching: Empirical Rationale
- The learning by teaching effect is upheld in 17 of 19 tests, yielding a median effect size of d = 0.77.
learning by teaching: Theoretical Rationale
- Asking students to teach others encourages students to select the most relevant information from a lesson and organize it into a coherent explanation, and can involve integrating the material with existing knowledge. - Although teaching is intended to f
learning by teaching: Example
- Learners are asked to study a multimedia lesson on a scientific process and then to explain how the process works to another student.
learning by teaching: definition
- Learners teach others about previously studied material
self explaining: integrating
- Learners generate inferences and search for consistencies and inconsistencies between the currently presented material and their relevant prior knowledge or previously presented material.
self explaining: organizing
- Learners create inferences to fit the elements of information together into a coherent mental model.
self explaining: selecting
- Learners choose which elements of information need to be explained.