Chemistry
the study of the structure and interactions of matter
Matter
that which has mass and occupies space
Weight
the force of gravity acting on matter
Potential energy
stored energy
Kinetic energy
energy of motion;actively involved in doing work
Chemical Elements
The building blocks of matter
117 elements
26 element are present in human body
Oxygen (O)
Major Element: Atomic Number 8
Carbon (C)
Major Element: Atomic Number 6
Hydrogen (H)
Major Element: Atomic Number 1
Nitrogen (N)
Major Element: Atomic Number 7
96% of the body's mass is composed from what elements?
O: oxygen
C: carbon
H: hydrogen
N: nitrogen
Phosphorus
Elemental Sign: P
Found in the human body
Potassium
Elemental Sign: K
Found in the human body
Sulfur
Elemental Sign: S
Found in the human body
Sodium
Elemental Sign: Na
Found in the human body
Clorine
Elemental Sign: Cl
Found in the human body
Magnesium
Elemental Sign: Mg
Found in the human body
Iron
Elemental Sign: Fe
Found in the human body
Calcium
Elemental Sign: Ca
Found in the human body
Iodine
Elemental Sign: I
Found in the human body
Atom
basic unit of matter; the smallest unit of an element that maintains the properties of that element
Nucleus
the positively charged dense center of an atom
A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
Subatomic Particles
The small parts that comprise an atom: protons, neutrons, and electrons
Atomic Number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
What does NOT change inside an atom?
The number of protons in the nucleus
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 1 or 2
Atomic Number = 6
Mass Number = 12 or 13
Atomic Number = 7
Mass Number = 14 or 15
Atomic Number = 8
Mass Number = 16, 17 or 18
Mass Number
protons + neutrons
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses due to a different number of neutrons
Ions
electrically charged atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
Cation
a positively charged ion
Anion
a negatively charged ion
Compound
Two or more elements that are chemically combined
Chemical Bonding
the joining of atoms to form new substances. when formed electrons are shared, gained, or lost.
Ionic Bond
Chemical Bond: They stick together like magnets attract to each other; attraction force that holds together ions with opposite charges; one atom loses an electron to form a positive ion and the other atom gains an electron to form a negative ion
Covalent Bond
Chemical Bond: Involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
Sharing can be equal or unequal
Hydrogen Bond
Chemical Bond: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom
What is the most common chemical bond in the compounds of the body's structures
Covalent
Types of covalent bond
Single, Double, Triple which is all dependent on the number of electron pairs shared between atoms
Single Covalent Bond
Double Covalent Bond
Covalent Bonding
Sharing can be equal or nonequal
Solid structures are formed by what type of bonds?
Ionic
Polar Covalent Bond
Unequal sharing of electrons between the two atoms
If there is only a single element what type of bond will take place?
Non Polar Covalent
What type of bond forms water molecule?
Polar Covalent Bond
Non Polar Covalent Bond
Covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms, resulting in a BALANCED distribution of electrical charge
Two different elements have different atomic number, therefore 1 side will get the partial positive, while the o
Hydrophobic
Water-fearing"; pertaining to NONPOLAR molecules (or parts of molecules) that do not dissolve in water.
The bonds between C and H in methane molecule
NonPolar Covalent
ALL polar covalent bond are____
hydrophilic
Hydrophilic
water loving- polar or ionic, water clings to compound but does not dissolve
Carbon & Oxygen C--O
Polar Covalent
Carbon & Nitrogen C--N
Polar Covalent
Hydrogen & Nitrogen H--N
Polar Covalent
Hydrogen & Oxygen H--O
Polar Covalent
Hydrogen Bonding
a type of weak bond that occurs between the hydrogen atoms of one molecule and a slightly negative atom within another molecule -- typically between H and O
This type of bond forms water molecule
Polar Covalent
Surface Tension on water is the result of this type of bond?
Hydrogen
Chemical Reactions
The process in which substances undergo chemical changes that results in the formation of new substances.
Reactants
The starting materials for chemical reactions.
Products
elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction
Synthesis (Anabolic) Reaction
A+B --> C
Energy Absorbing
a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single NEW and/or LARGER molecules
Decomposition (Catabolic) Reaction
AB --> A+B
Energy releasing
a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances
Exchange Reaction
AB + CD ---> AD + CB
a reaction in which molecules are exchanged to create new products
Reversible Reaction
AB <---> A+B
Can happen in either direction
Chemical reaction in which the products REFORM the original reactants
Combining amino acids to form proteins is an example of this type of chemical reaction
Synthesis or Anabolic
Think: Muscle cells
E+G --> P+P+E
Decomposition Reaction (Catabolism)
Type of reaction that consists of both anabolism and catabolism
Exchange
This type of reaction can occur in the SAME cell and can also be seen in the digestive system
Reversible Reactions
Include the growth and mineralization of bone and increases in muscle mass
Synthesis (Anabolic) Reaction
Exergonic Reactions
reactions in cells that break down chemical bonds and RELEASE free energy (ATP)
Catabolic
Reactants have more potential energy than the products
Endergonic Reactions
reactions in cells that build chemical bonds CONSUMING / ABSORBING free energy (ATP)
Anabolic
Where reactants have less potential energy than the products
Endergonic
Energy is absorbed from the environment or surrounding area
Activation Energy
Kick Start Energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
Catalysts
chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions in the cell without being consumed by the reaction
Lowers the activation energy necessary
Think: Enzymes
Enzymes
Molecules usually proteins or nucleic acids that act as biochemical catalysts
Can be used over and over again
Have specific 3-D shapes
Water
55-60% of body mass
Lubricant
Major component in mucus & serous fluids
Helps to maintain the homeostasis of body temp
Excellent solvent for ionic or polar substances
Can be BOTH a reactant or product
1 or more _____ dissolve in _____ to form a _______
Solutes
Water
Solution
Non polar molecules are ______
Hydrophobic -- water fearing, do NOT dissolve in water
Hydrolysis
BREAKING down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water (reactant)
Essential in digestion
A-B + HOH --> A-H + B-OH
Hydrolysis
As HOH splits, it BREAKS a bond in another reactant
Dehydration Synthesis
to join by removing water (product)
BUILDING reaction
Acid
Dissolves in water (Hydrophilic)
Raises the H+ ion concentration
pH below 7
Base
Dissolves in water (Hydrophilic)
Lowers H+ ion concentration
pH above 7
pH Scale
measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14
pH of blood
7.35-7.45
It is a neutralizing agent as it moves around the body
Higher or lower pH will cause Acidosis / Alkalosis
Acidosis / Alkalosis
Acid-Base Imbalances
Acidosis = pH < 7.35 greater acid than base
Alkalosis = pH > 7.45 greater base than acid
Organic Compounds
carbon-based molecules (most abundant compound besides water)
Chains, branches, rings, etc...form the carbon skeleton
Always contain C and H
Functional Groups
A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.
May include O, N, P, S
Major Functional Group
OH
Hydroxyl
Major Functional Group
OC
Carbonyl
Major Functional Group
OCOH
Carboxyl
Major Functional Group
Amino
NHH
Major Functional Group
Sulfhydryl
SH
Macromolecules
large molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, or lipids
Formation of Macromolecules
Monomer --> Polymer
Process: Anabolism
Mechanism: Dehydration Synthesis
Breakdown of Macromolecules
Polymer --> Monomer
Process: Catabolism
Mechanism: Hydrolysis
Carbohydrates
Source of chemical energy
Building structural unit
organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
(CH2O)n
Why can't we survive without carbohydrates?
Don't have a source of energy
Cells can't form
Without carbohydrates, you get no fiber. Without fiber you have incomplete digestion, thus poor assimilation of nutrients.
Major Groups of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
simple sugars (glucose, galactose (from milk), fructose (from fruit))
Named according to the # of carbons in the carbon skeleton
Suffix always contains "-ose
Monosaccharides
Tri-ose = 3 carbons = Glycolysis
Pent-ose = 5 carbons = Ribose, Deoxyribose
Hex-ose = 6 carbons = Glucose, Glalactose, Fructose
Isomer
compounds with the same simple formula but different 3D structures resulting in different physical and chemical properties
What makes isomers different?
The arrangement. They have the same simple formula but different 3D structures resulting in different physical and chemical properties
Disaccharides
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are all ____________
Disaccharides
glucose + fructose
Sucrose
glucose + glucose
Maltose
glucose + galactose
Lactose
Polysaccharides
macromolecules formed by repeated dehydration synthesis reactions; complex carbohydrates; ex: cellulose, starches formed from glucose molecules (monosaccharide)
Serve as storage material, hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for cells; building material for structures that protect a cell or an organism
Polysaccharides
--Glycogen, Starches, Cellulose
Starch
Main Polysaccharide used by the body: Stored form of glucose in plant cells that consists entirely of glucose monomers linked in unbranched chains
Cellulose
Stored form of glucose in fibers
Structural component of plant walls; once formed, resists hydrolysis, (indigestible) so not an energy source.
Lipids
Macromolecules made mainly from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms;
includes fats, oils, and waxes; hydrophobic
used for long-term storage of energy
building structural parts of cell membranes (cell protection)
fatty acids and glycerol make up the simple
Lipid Types
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
Triglycerides
Chief form of fat (lipids) in body cells; composed of three molecules of fatty acids (tails) and one molecule of glycerol (backbone) thru dehydration synthesis
Formation of triglycerides
Dehydration synthesis links the fatty acids to the glycerol backbone
Glycerol
Three carbon atoms each liked to a hydroxyl group (OH)
Fatty Acids
carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated derived from natural fats and oils
Saturated Fatty Acid
solid at room temperature, animal derived, all carbons have single bonds to hydrogens
Have Carboxyl group
NO double covalent bond C-C
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
liquid at room temperature, plant derived, not all carbons have bonds to hydrogen,
1 or more double covalent bonds C=C
Have Carboxyl group
Examples of unsaturated fatty acids
Mono-unsaturated: olive oil, canola oil, avocados, 1 C=C bond
Poly-unsaturated: corn oil, fatty fish multi C=C bonds
Phospholipids
It contains three types of monmers
glycerol- and fatty acids and phosphate group., Structure for cells; cell membrane
Polar head- hydrophilic likes water. fatty acid- hydrophobic doesn't like water
Phosphate Group
Linker to other side groups
A chemical group consisting of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; important in energy transfer.
Cell Membranes
Phospholipid Bilayer with hydrophilic & hydrophobic regions
Serves as a boundary between the cell and its external environment. It is flexible and allows the cell to vary its shape if necessary.
It controls the movement of materials entering and exiting t
Steroids
3 six-sided rings and 1 five-sided ring
Many of this type of lipid serve as chemical messengers or as parts of the cell membrane; examples include cholesterol (#1), testosterone, and estrogen
Examples of Steroids
See the shape? 3 six-sided rings and 1 five-sided ring
Cholesterol: a component of cell membrane
Estradiol: The female sex hormone
Testosterone: the male sex hormone
Cortisol: secreted by adrenal gland
Eicosanoids
20-carbon fatty acid called arachidonic acid
Lipids that exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or immunity, and as messengers in the central nervous system.
Proteins
contains C, H, O, N & S
Source of energy.
Needed by tissue for repair and growth
Functions:
Structural
Regulatory
Catalytic
Contractile
Immunological
Transport
Chemical Substance that is involved in body regulation
Hormone
A protein that helps destroy pathogens
Antibody
Amino Acid
Building Block of protein
20 Amino acids are used to make proteins
Only obtained thru diet
Linked together by dehydration synthesis to form peptide bonds
Primary Protein Structure
simplest -- linear-- sequence of amino acids, forming polypeptide
The order of amino acids in a protein; order matters; different order of amino acids = different structure/shape/function of the protein
Secondary Protein Structure
sequence of AA starting to fold and coil, held together by hydrogen bonds
Tertiary Protein Structure
3-D shape the molecule assumes, as a result of twisting, bending, and folding cause by various types of bonding between H bonds, ionic bonds, sulfur bonds
Quaternary Protein Structure
made up of 2+ strands of polypeptides
Most complex (many enzymes are quaternary proteins)
Hydrogen, ionic, and sulfur bonds hold the polypeptide chains together
Denaturation
For proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native 3D conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive.
For DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
Occurs when protein is exposed to extreme conditions of pH, s
Once_______occurs, the protein is rendered unusable and thus lost forever
Denaturation
Enzymes
protein that acts as a biological catalyst, speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
Very complex, yet efficient
Some contain 2 parts
Apo-enzyme = protein part
CoFactor = Nonprotein portion
Apoenzyme + Cofactor
Functionality of Enzyme: The 2 puzzle pieces of certain enzymes
Requires both parts to become catalytically active
Apo=Protein Portion
Cofactor = non protein portion
Why do we need enzymes?
Enzymes can build structures inside the body, can help provide the body with energy or can break down structures or molecules in various places in our body. Without enzymes, our bodies would cease to exist.
Enzyme Action
1 -Begins with the binding of the substrate (or substrates) to the active site on the enzyme.
(The active site is the specific region of the enzyme which combines with the substrate.)
2-Binding of the substrate to the enzyme causes changes in the chemical
Enzyme Action
Nucleic Acids
very long organic compounds made up of C, H, N, & P
Source of genetic info -- contain instructions or "recipes" that cells need to carry out all the functions of life
Nucleotides
building blocks of nucleic acids
3 Subunits
Nitrogenous Base, Pentose Sugar, Phosphate Group
How many nucleotides are present?
4
Nitrogenous Bases
What composes the rungs of the DNA ladder
The purines (adenine and quanine) and pyrimidines (thymine, cytosine and uracil) that comprise DNA and RNA molecules
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
A nucleic acid found in all living cells which carry the organisms hereditary information
Sugar is deoxyribose
Nitrogenous Bases:
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
Hydrogen bonds form double helix
DNA is always contained inside the _______ of a cell except during ________________
Nucleus / Cell division
Why should a nucleus hold onto DNA?
So the structure is not changed
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
transfers genetic information from nucleus (DNA) to cytoplasm in order to build protein
Single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose
Nitrogenous bases are:
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Uracil (U)
Types of RNA
mRNA = messenger
tRNA = transfer
rRNA = ribosomal
mRNA
messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome
_______ is free and can travel inside the cytoplasm
RNA
tRNA
transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis
Located in cytoplasm
rRNA
Ribosomal RNA: The most abundant type of RNA, which together with proteins forms the structure of ribosomes.
Ribosomes coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to mRNA codons
Transcription
DNA is located in the nucleoid (prokaryotes) or nucleus (eukaryotes) and protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm. DNA does not move to the site of protein synthesis (ribosomes) to directly guide the process. Instead, it transfers its information to mRNA
Translation
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced
Location = Ribosome
Reactant = Amino Acid
Product = Polypeptide
The process of the formation of RNA from the DNA template is called _________
Transcription
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate, an organic molecule that acts as the MAIN ENERGY SOURCE for cell processes; composed of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and three phosphate groups
Energy rich
Identify the 3 Phosphate groups
Light green
Enzymes are either ______ or _________
Proteins or ribozymes