attachment
-refers to the close emotional links established by a child with his or her primary caregiver
-demonstrated through attachment behaviors of the child-desire for physical proximity, stress in the absence of attachment figure
-helps child develop trust
-the
imprinting
-a type of learning
-phase sensitive
-occurs during a critical period
-a form of attachment
-occurs automatically, rapidly or independently
anaclitic depression and hospitalism
-hospitalized infants prior to 1950's were subject to isolation, social and emotional deprivation
-hospitals forbade parental visits for sick infants to minimize disruption, not uncommon for infants to be hospitalized for months without parental contact
-
stages of attachment
-indiscriminate attachment: birth-3 months
-indiscriminate social responsiveness; does not distinguish between caregivers
-specific attachment: 4-7 months
-preference for certain people, distinguish between primary and secondary caregivers, but mostly acc
stranger and separation anxiety
-stranger anxiety: fear or wariness of strangers
-other humans are source of potential danger
-seek security in mother's presence
-peaks 6-9 months
-separation anxiety: distressed when caregiver leaves
-peaks at 12 months, normal until age 3
-separation a
strange situation
-Mary Ainsworth 1979
-developed it
-20 minute test designed to measure the quality of attachment
-mother and infant enter a room
-an unfamiliar adult enters and interacts
-the mother leaves the room and sometimes the infant is left with stranger
-the moth
secure attachment
-caregiver responds appropriately, promptly and consistently to needs
-during strange situation child: uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration
-seeks proximity and is comforted on return
-returns to exploration
-infant feels safe in the world and
insecure avoidant attachment
-caregiver: characterized by neglectful parenting, parent is not available-little or no response to distressed child
-discourages crying and encourages independence- may be punishing when children rely on them
-during strange situation child: little affec
insecure ambivalent/resistant attachment
-caregiver: characterized by unpredictable parenting-sometimes appropriate and sometimes neglectful; mom is sometimes available, sometimes punishing
-generally will only respond after increased attachment behavior from the infant
-during strange situation
insecure disorganized attachment
-added by Solomon and Main (1986)
-associated with significant loss, trauma, or maltreatment
-caregiver: characterized by abusive parenting-frightening, intrusive, punishing
-during strange situation child: shows fear and signs of physiological stress
-ov
looking time paradigm
-three paradigms for looking time method
-visual preference paradigm: infants look longer at what they like (ex. prefer to look at mothers face or familiar faces)
-compare two stimuli-measure where infants look and for how long
-looking time indicates per
habituation
-habituation: indicates memory
-a decrease in response to repeated exposures
-infants initially look intently at new stimuli
-then they lose interest, look away
-habituation is learning
-indicates discrimination
-requires memory: infant is comparing what
habituation/dishabituation
-habituation: a decrease in response to repeated exposure
-dishabituation: release from habituation
-in habituation trials looking time decreases as the familiarized stimulus is presented 3 times, then on the fourth time there is a novel stimulus presente
violation of expectation paradigm
-uses looking time and violation of expectations to measure infants' reaction to possible and impossible events
-babies will look longer at impossible events
externality effect
-eye tracking:
-eye monitoring and tracking systems can see exactly where the infant eye looks
-externality effect:
-younger infants, 1 month old, attend primarily to the outside of the fire
-older infants, 2 month old, attend to the inside of the figure
eye gaze
-gava
-subjects: newborns
-shown faces that were partially blocked out
-some faces inverted
-some eyes blocked out
-findings: eyes visible: show preference for faces right side up
-eyes covered: no preference for right side up or upside down
-eyes play an
deferred imitation
-imitating a model after a significant delay
-sed to assess long term memory
-meltzoff 1988
-subjects: 1 year olds
-infants watch as model performs an action (pressing head agains a panel to make light turn on)
-infants return to the lab in 24 hours
-find
object permanence
-objects are permanent in time and space whether we are perceiving them or not
A-not-B task
-error of object permanence
-if object is hidden in one location found and then moved, infant will look in first location
-also known as preservation error
-at 12 months infants pass the task
invisible displacement
Hide a toy in a box while the child watches
Cover the box with a blanket
Under the blanket, remove the toy from the box, leaving the toy under the blanket (invisible displacement - the toy is displaced from its location, the displacement is invisible to t
object constancy
-an object does not change size or shape based on how one views it
-slater et al. 1990:
-subjects: newborns
-studied habituation and dishabituation method
-newborns habituated to an object at a close distance
-then shown the same size object at a father d
object cohesion and continuity
-individual objects are cohesive wholes with distinct boundaries
-illusory contours: a type of optical illusion, perception of an edge when none is present-the square looks like one cohesive object
-Bertenthal
-subjects: 4, 7, and 8 months old
-presented
assimilation
-bringing in new knowledge to existing schemas
-fits practice to theory
-complex but familiar information is simplified to fit existing categories
-ex. child calling a cat a dog because it has four legs and a tail
accommodation
-adjusting an existing scheme to allow for newly acquired knowledge or understanding
-fits theory to practice
-change the ideas to fit complexities of new information
-ex. child learns the difference between a kickball, football, baseball. info gets accom
conservation
ability to problem solve during transformation
egocentrism
lacks ability to take the perspective of another person
reversibility
understanding that something can be undone
ex. thinks stain won't come out of dress
cognitive flexibility
the ability to switch attention from one context to another
dual encoding
-the ability to act on two representations at a time
-explains why young kids often afraid of people in costume or dressing up on halloween
-older children: better able to distinguish between appearance and reality
-also able to hold verbal and visual inf
animism
-the belief that inanimate objects have life
-Piaget was first to observe that preschool children attribute human qualities to inanimate objects
-believing childhood toys have thoughts and feelings
-belief that inanimate beings can cause things to happen
self-propelled motion
-cue children use to determine animism
-if it can move on its own
hypothetical thinking
thinking about what is possible does not have to be real
Rouge test
-Mirror test (Gallup, 1970)
-subjects: 12- 24 month old
-place a mark on the unknowing child's forehead
-observed the child's reaction to his or her image in a mirror
-findings: 18 month olds touch their foreheads, not mirror
-indicates visual self recogn
protective optimism
-optimism is adaptive, protective
-encourages children to try things they would not try if they had a more realistic idea of their abilities
-fosters development
-research:
-correlated with intelligence in 3 and 4 year olds
-correlated with better school
wishful thinking
-children have wishful thinking about their own performance, they predict the performance of others accurately
-Stipek 1988
theory theory
-scientific study of how children understand the outside world
-states that children are naturally curious, designed to learn-they way they do is though a process of theory revision
-childhood thinking is like scientific thinking-they construct theories a
theory of mind
-ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others
-childrens understanding of their own minds and the minds of other people
-theory of mind is rooted in our social communication system
-children's theory of mind is a strong predictor of language s
false belief and deception tasks
-false belief task: used to measure theory of mind-what children understand about what other people know
-false belief and deception tasks: children think everyone knows what they know
-they think they always knew what they know (have a box labeled smart'
Sally and Anne task
-classic false belief task
-3 year olds fail the false belief task
-by 4-5 years old children can solve the task
-sally plays with the ball and puts it away in basket then anne plays with ball and puts it in the box. where will sally look for it?
-3 year
overimitation
-children's tendency to imitate all of adult behavior-without understanding how or why it helps them achieve their goal
-important for human development: we pass on language, culture, social development to future generations
-differentiates humans from ot
mirror neurons
-neurons that fire not only when an individual performs an action, but also when the individual observes someone else make the same movement
-our brains simulate not only other people's actions but also their intentions and emotions
-gives us insight into
responding and initiating joint attention
-two types of joint attention
-responding to joint attention (RIA)-ability to follow the gaze and direction of gestures of others (a)
-RIA requires a basic understanding of shared perception
-initiating joint attention (JIA)
-infants use of gestures b and
attention
-the act of thinking about, listening to, or watching; directing the mind, allocation of processing resources
-adult attention: like a spotlight
-cognitive ability to focus and sharpen our attention
-requires inhibition, can be moved, refocused
-infant/ch
executive function
-cognitive self-control
-problem solving and thinking, controlling and regulating attention, inhibiting thought and behavior, planning and executing
-uses the frontal lobe
-4 types of executive function/information processing abilities:
working memory-abi
implicit and explicit memory
-explicit: declarative
-the conscious recollection of facts and descriptive details of past events
-subtypes: semantic-informational, conceptual
-episodic-autobiographical, situational, contextual
-implicit memory:
-non intentional, occurs without conscio
infantile amnesia
-inability to remember autobiographical events during the first 3-4 years of life
-not a real amnesia, does not involve catastrophic forgetting
-explanations:
-neurological development needed to process and store autobiographical memory
-Piaget's stages:
stability and specificity of memory
-memory: domain-general or domain specific
-is it one thing or many?
-early investigations:
-administered memory tasks and examined correlations between tests
-results-high correlations among tasks-indicated domain generality
-later research: using a wide
functional fixedness
- the tendency not to identify alternative uses for familiar objects
strategy use
-strategies: deliberate goal-directed mental operations aimed at solving a problem
-as a child gets older strategy use increases
-as strategy use increases performance improves
-sometimes by self discovery, sometimes taught by teachers and parents
-requir
metacognition
-thinking about thinking
-increases with age as does strategy use and effectiveness
production deficiency
-children often fail to produce strategies spontaneously
-flavell:
-children shown pictures and asked to remember in order and were watched for rehearsal and almost no kindergartener showed rehearsing, half of the 2nd graders were and almost all of the 5t
utilization deficiency
-use a strategy but ineffectively
source monitoring
ability to identify where knowledge comes from
Bowlby-attachment theory and sources of influence- Spitz (1954) Lorenz (1935) and Harlow (1959)
-spitz:
-subjects: two groups of hospitalized infants
-one group was raised by mothers
-second group was raised by overworked hospital staff from 3 months
-examined: psychological.developmental outcomes- motor, social and intellectual development
-compare
Tronick (1989)- still face experiment
-synchrony: determined by caregiver's ability to coordinate rapid and smooth exchanges with infant
-Tronick:
-subjects: 3, 6, 9 month olds
-mothers instructed to change from responsiveness to a still or neutral face
-measured infant response to caregiver
Mary Ainsworth's (1978; 1979)- research on quality of attachment and classification
-subjects: 26 infants and mothers
-observed and recorded patterns of behavior during the first year of life
-findings: infants whose mothers were responsive and sensitive in the first 6 months- cried much less as 1 year olds, were more obedient and compli
Karen Wynn- early math research
-showed violation of expectation
-subjects: 5 month babies
-watched while dolls are placed on stage
-dolls are added or subtracted behind a curtain
-curtain comes up revealing possible or impossible outcomes
-findings: babies look longer at impossible eve
Meltzoff and Moore- neonatal imitation findings and conclusions
-subjects: 2-3 week old infants
-presented adult facial gestures
-observed how often infants imitate
-findings: infants imitate mouth openings and gestures
-face recognition begins at birth
-suggests innate, biological ability
Langlois et al. (1987)- attractiveness
-subjects: 2-3 month olds and 6-8 month olds
-first adults rated attractiveness of photos of women
-then infants shown pairs of more and less attractive photos to indicate visual preference
-findings: infants looked consistently longer at attractive faces
Patricia Kuhl's phonemic discrimination research
-research on infant speech perception
-subjects: infants
-trained to turn their heads to a dancing bear when sounds change
-given sounds in native and non native language
-findings: 6-8 month old infants can discriminate all the phonemes of all languages
Rovee-Collier (1999) infant conditioning
-subjects: 6-18 months
-train task: infants press a lever to make the train move
-baseline phase- press, nothing happens
-learning phase-press, train moves
-retention phase- what happens days, weeks later
-findings: memory gradually and steadily increased
Spelke (1976)- intermodal integration findings
-intermodal perception: integrating or combining senses
-ability to associate and interconnect information from different modalities (ex. auditory and speech perception)
-subjects: 4 month olds
-shown two films-one playing peek a boo, the other playing wo
Core knowledge theory- people, numbers and objects
-say that infants are born it core, basic knowledge
-implies that some aspects of cognition are innate, or develop over the first year
-core knowledge serves as then foundation for higher level processing
-core knowledge system includes: objects, people/a
Core knowledge of people
-infants core knowledge of people is the foundation for social development
-face recognition: neonatal imitation, face processing
-language: phonemic discrimination
-agents and intention:
-young infants understand other people have goals and intentions
-i
Core knowledge of numbers
-core knowledge of numbers serves as a foundation for development of mathematical and spatial abilities
-simple arithmetic: preverbal counting system can be used for the enumeration of sets up to three
-ordinality: refers to a basic understanding of more
Core knowledge of objects
-core knowledge for objects serves as the foundation for the development of understanding of inanimate objects
-the nature of objects: object constancy-an object does not change size or shape based on how one views it
-object continuity and cohesion-indiv
Piaget's- research on object permanence
-test involves hiding a toy under a blanket to see if infant will retrieve toy
-develops in stages: piaget believed first notion appears at 4 months but only if object is party visible
-by 8 months infants can retrieve a completely hidden object
Baillargeon's- research on object permanence
-subjects: 3.5 and 4.5 month old infants
-used violation of expectation to study object permanence
-infants habituated to a moving screen that was rotated 180 degrees
-wooden block placed behind the screen
-possible condition-screen stops where it makes c
Infant face perception research-human faces, monkey faces, race effect
-subjects: 6-9 month olds
-shown upright and inverted human and monkey faces
-findings: 6 month olds: show the same processing bias for upright human faces and upright animal faces
-can distinguish between money faces
-9 month olds lose the ability
-cross
Types of play- symbolic, object, sociodramatic, physical, rough-and-tumble, games with rules
-object: infancy to 6
-object manipulation (rattle) constructive play (blocks)
-constructive play more common in boys
-important for developing fine motor skills, ability to use tools
-symbolic play: aka fantasy or pretend play
-15 months to 6 years
-usin
Piaget- cognitive development-sensorimotor
- birth-2
-children know the world through their actions-sensory and motor
-infants use five senses to explore environment
-infants at birth are unable to differentiate themselves from the external world
-3-6 months infants become interested in objects
-o
Piaget-cognitive development- preoperational,
-2-7
-thought becomes symbolic
-children can use a symbol, object or word for something
-children understand make believe and play is symbolic
-language is symbolic
-pictures and photos are symbolic-can draw a picture to represent something
-child can thi
Piaget-cognitive development- concrete operations
-thought is now organized and integrated
-thought is logical-if A is grater than B and B is greater than C then A must be greater than C
-can pass the conservation test
-does not develop simultaneously for all properties of material (number, weight, volum
Piaget-cognitive development- formal operations
-piaget believed this develops in adolescence
-most complex thinking
-abstract thinking: thinking no longer restricted to thinking about things, now includes thinking about thought
-hypothetical thought-thinking about what is possible does not have to be
Judy DeLoache- representational insight findings
-investigated children's insight-their ability to understand that one entity can stand for something other than itself
-used models and pictures to research. hid toy in model house and showed child then hid toy in real house to see if child could find it
Diamond's cognitive flexibility- card sorting task
-the ability to switch easily from one task to another
-card sorting and color
-subjects asked to sort out cards by shape or color
-then asked to switch dimensions
-findings:
-the ability develops during the proportional stage
-3 and 4 year olds fail
-6 y
DeVrie's-appearance versus reality
-3-6 year olds first played with Maynard the Cat
-Maynard was then fit with a realistic dog mask
-children were asked what kind of animal it was now and if it would eat dog food or cat food or if it would bark or meow
-findings: 3 year olds said Maynard w
Repacholi and Gopnik (1997)- broccoli and goldfish crackers
-subjects 15 and 18 month old infants
-babies given broccoli and goldfish crackers
-experimenter tastes and likes either broccoli or crackers
-then asks for some
-findings: 15 month olds gave the experimenter what the child likes
-18 month olds gave the e
Horner (2005) overimitation
-subjects: children and chimps
-watched as adults perform actions on a box with a treat
-compared back box and clear box-some of the actions are seemingly irrelevant
-findings: children imitate all the adult behavior, even when told to avoid silly or unne
types of social learning- mimicry, emulation, imitative learning, teaching
-children learn through observation, imitation, and being taught
-teaching is uniquely human
-mimicry: duplication without understanding of the goal (ex. child getting on a scale because they've seen parent do it)
-emulation: attempting to imitate behavio
autism- mindblindness and risk factors
-autism spectrum disorder ASD
-a range of neurodevelopment disorders involving language impairment, social and communication difficulties
-lacking theory of mind-mindblindness
-early signs: no babbling by age 1
no single words by 16 months or two word phr
Kitayama et al. (2003)- selective and divided attention
-subjects: Japanese and American adults
-shown a box with a line and asked to reproduce line in a smaller box
-absolute task-asked to reproduce the line using absolute length
-relative task- asked to reproduce the line using relative length
-findings: ame
Chen and Siegler-tool use
-subjects: 1.5 and 2.5 years old
-shown an out of reach toy and a set of tools
-only the rake can be used to retrieve the toy
-children sat with their parents and urged to get the toy
-if after three trials they did not retrieve the toy they were given he
Kail (1990) studies- speed of processing
-subjects: 6-21
-used working memory tasks to measure speed of processing: mental rotation, memory search, visual search, name retrieval: shown two pics of a banana one peeled and one unpeeled, determine whether items have the same name
-mental addition
-
Cherry and Kruger (1983)- ADHD research findings and conclusions
-subjects: children 7-9 with and without ADHD
-performed dichotic listening task
-wearing headphones, different messages are played into each ear
-subjects are asked to attend to one message
-in the unattended ear: nothing, static, backward speech, forwar
Hayes and Hennessy (1996)- implicit and explicit memory
-subjects: 4, 5, 10 years old
-asked to identify fragmented pictures
-pictures are unidentifiable at first but become increasingly easier to identify
-two days later:
-subjects were again asked to identify fragmented pictures-some were previously seen and
Fiyush and Hammond (1990)- children's memory for routine events
-subjects: 2.5 year old children
-asked specific questions about recent special events (trip to the zoo, ride in an airplane, a camping trip)
-findings: children remember routine events
-explanation: everything is new to young children
-children focus on
Ornstein and colleagues 1998- type of question in eyewitness testimony
-subjects: 3, 5, 7 year old
-children visited pediatrician
-during exam typical features were included(check eyes and ears) and other features were purposely left out
-an atypical feature was also included (doctor measured head circumference)
-subjects we
Ornstein(1975)-strategy use
-subjects 3rd 6th and 8th graders
-presented with a series of words to recall
-told they must repeat the most recently presented word at least once, and they may practice any other words if they want
-findings: significant age differences in performance r
Ceci-repeated questioning
-subjects: preschool and kindergarten children
-interviewed weekly for 11 weeks
-children were asked repeatedly if they remember getting finger caught in a mouse trap
-findings:
-memory distortion measured as a function of false assents
-by the 10th sessi
Leichtman and Ceci (1995) -Sam Stone study
-subjects: 3-4 and 5-6 year old children
-sam stone visits a preschool and kindergarten classroom
-says hello to the teacher, the teacher introduces him
-sits and listens to a story, comments, strolls around, says goodbye, and leaves
-examined children's
Guidelines for children's eyewitness testimony
-abundance of research has led to changes in how children are interviewed
-NICHD national institute of child health and human development
-order of questions:
free recall, cued recall, leave leading questions for last and only about forensically important