we watched a movie in class where campus and collegues placed babies on a visual cliff, and bad mothers emote positively or negatively to their child
a, display rules, b, social referencing, c, basic emotions, d, attachment
b. social referencing
children develop gender identity
a. at birth, b. by 1 year, c. by preschool (age 3), d. by kindergarten (age5)
c. by kintergarten
which is NOT structure of bronfenbrenners bioecological model
a. microsystem
b. mesosystem
c. monosystem
d. exocystem
e. macrosystem
monosystem
marla is an abusive mother who often loses her temper and either yells at or ignores her son leo. what type of attachment does leo most likely have with his mother?
a. secure, b. resistant c. anxious/avoidant D. disorganized
d. disorganized
development of prosocial behavior is related to development in these two areas
a.emotional development and attachment
b.conceptual and cognitive development
c.inhibitory control and maturating
d.cognitive and emotional development
cognitive and emotional development
The children in Gavin's class are asked to name the children they like the most and the children they like the least. Many of Gavin
.a. Neglected
b. rejected
c. controversial
d. popular
b. rejected
Olivia gets a new book from her grandparents. The book is difficult for her to read and after struggling to sound out some of the words she gives up. Describe Olivia's achievement- related attributions and orientation in the context of Dweck's Achievement
people think intelligence is fixed, so when they have a challenge and they fail they are likely to give up instead of continuing to try and master that challenge
This type of parenting is related to positive outcomes in other cultures, but not typically in the US.
Authoritarian
Japanese college students displayed less of these emotions in comparison to American college students when viewing a movie in the presence of an experimenter
negative emotions
This parental characteristic is important for achieving goodness of fit
parental sensitivity
Babies from Germany are more likely to receive this type of attachment classification than US babies
insecure avoidance
Harlow raised monkeys in isolation with a wire and cloth "mother". the baby monkeys preferred the cloth mother and only went to the wire mother for what?
food
Friends can be a negative influence because they are associated with increases in this behavior
aggression, risk taking, early sexual activity
temperament is mostly stable. This is one reason why it may not stay stable is what?
unstable home, environment/divorce/abuse/death of a family member
Around 8 months of age, children begin to display negative emotions when their parents are not present
separation anxiety
An emotion can be described as two things
physiological response & cognition
These kids receive few positive or negative ratings on measures of sociometric status
Neglected kids, they are just not noticed nor are on peoples radar
Parental investment theory suggests that parents are invested in their children so that the parents' genes are passed on. This theory is a part of which group of Social Development theories?
Evolutionary theories/ecological theories
One issue with Kohlberg's theory is that he based his stages on interviews with only this group
boys/males
Rothbart and Bates theorized that there are _____ dimensions of temperament
6
This theorist believed development is discontinuous, and stressed the importance of developmental crisis
Erikson, freuds student
These parents are warm and responsive, but do not enforce rules or expect compliance
permissive
This lab experiment is commonly used to assess attachment in toddlers
strange situation, bring kids into the lab where they experience a series of different situations that are unique to the child
A mental representation of relationships that develops from parent-child interactions
internal working model
Maternal age is increasing, partly due to increases in __________________________________________
Maternal employment
Media and culture influence gender identity and stereotypes through gender ________________
socialization
According to Freud, this personality structure is the earliest and most primitive
Id
Feelings of concern for another person's emotions
sympathy
According to some researchers, birth order effects show that these children are more likely to do well in school
first born or only children
When parents choose childcare, they should focus on this characteristic, which is associated with positive developmental outcomes.
Quality----small group sizes, small caregiver-to-child ratio, caregiver who has had pervious experience
According to Kohlberg, reasoning at this level is associated with upholding rules, except when they interfere with basic rights and values
Post-conventional level
Children with this attachment classification are clingy, upset when the parents leave the room, and not comforted when they return
insecure resistant/ambivalent
Infants can regulate emotion. True or False?
True, can do so with the help of another person (parents)
Researchers can assess temperament by assessing levels of this hormone
cortisol
Joy. Fear. Surprise. What are the 3 other basic emotions?
Sadness, Anger, disgust
Jason sees a pediatrician at a health care clinic. The pediatrician gives Jason a flue shot. Bronfenbrenner would describe this environmental influence as part of which system?
Microsystem (child is directly experiencing the doctor)
Children are born with certain traits that influence the environment. The environment also influences behaviors driven by these traits. What is this concept?
reciprocal determinism
What are Freud's stages?
Oral (first year): Primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity. Mother established as strongest love-object.
Anal (1-3 years): Pleasure = defecation
Phallic (3-6 years): Pleasure = genitalia
Latency (6-12 years): Sexual energy channeled i
What are the three components of Freud's personality structure?
Id, Ego, Superego
Id
The biological drives with which the infant is born
Unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure
Ego
Emerges in first year, rational/logical/problem solving component of personality
Superego
Develops during the ages of 3 to 6
Based on the child's internalization of the parents' attributes, beliefs and standards
What are Eriksons stages of development?
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year)
Autonomy vs. Shame (1-3.5 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-puberty)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence- early adulthood)
What are the contributions of Psychoanalytic Theories? (freud/erikson)
Emphasis on early experience, emotional relationships (Freud)
Recognition of the role of unconscious mental activity and subjective experience (Freud)
Emphasis on adolescent search for identity (Erikson)
BUT- theories are vague, many elements questionable
What are the main goals of learning theories?
Emphasize role of external factors
Emphasize the importance of the child in shaping development
Many practical applications
Behaviorism: Watson- Systematic desensitization
Operant Conditioning: Skinner- Behavior modification
Limited attention to biologica
Social learning theory-- bandura
posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling
Boys> girls
Girls increase imitation levels when offered rewards (incentives)
Reciprocal Determinism
is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use
Theories of Social Cognition
Children's ability to think and reason about their own and other people's thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviors
Emphasize the process of self-socialization
Dweck's Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation
Children's reactions to failure as attributable to differences in achievement motivation
Learning goals vs. Performance goals
What are the two achievement-related attributions per Dweck's theory *****
-Incremental/Mastery Orientation
Attribute success to effort
Incremental view of ability: Can improve by trying
Focus on learning goals
-Entity/Helpless Orientation
Attribute failure to ability
Entity view of ability: Ability cannot be changed
Focus on pe
Ethological and evolutionary theories
Genetically based abilities and predispositions underlie most aspects of behavior
Bioecological model (ethological theory of development)
Contexts of development
Child's active role in selecting/influencing contexts
Ethology
Studies the evolutionary bases of behavior, attempting to understand behavior in terms of its adaptive or survival value
Lorenz- Imprinting
Evolutionary Psychology
Applies the Darwinian concepts of natural selection and adaptation to human behavior
Large size of brains leads to prolonged
period of immaturity
Parental Investment Theory
Evolutionary basis of parenting behaviors
Parents' genes passed on only if offspring survive and reproduce
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model****
Microsystem: Immediate environment
Mesosystem: Connections among microsystems
Exosystem: Environmental settings that affect person indirectly
Macrosystem: Larger cultural context
Chronosystem: Historical changes
Different types of theories and what they focus on
Ecological Theories = context is important
Ethological= Focus on behavior
Evolutionary= Focus on psychological traits
Bioecological= Focus on environmental influences
Social learning theory emphasizes ___________ as the primary mechanisms of development.
Observation and imitation
Genetic encoding
Reinforcement
Social influences
observation and imitation
According to Freud, internalization is:
Adopting the attributes and beliefs of another person (your parents)
The successful transition from the oral stage.
Experiencing intense sexual desires.
The lack of memories from the infant years
Adopting the attributes and beliefs of another person (your parents)
What is emotion?
Physiological response + cognition
Neural response, subjective feeling, desire to take action
Emotions important for survival
Basic emotions and when do they first emerge?
Joy, Sadness, Anger, Fear, Disgust, Surprise
Thought to be universally experienced
Emerge within first 6-8 months
Emergence of early positive emotions
Evidence that babies display interest, joy, sadness and surprise
Happiness/Smiling
From birth: Reflexive, quick smiles that often occur during REM
1-2 months: in reaction to external stimuli
3 months: Social smiles
emergence of early negative emotions
Develop early! Crying begins at birth
Expression/situation mismatch
Undifferentiated distress
Fear: 6 months strange situations, unpredictable or startling events
seperation anxiety*****
Distress infants feel when separated from caregiver
Emerges around 8 months
Decreases around 15 months
Found across cultures
Social referencing
Use the emotional expressions of another to guide behavior in an ambiguous situation
9-12 month old infants
Mom displays either fear, anger, interest, happiness or sadness
Does baby cross cliff? Fear = 0% crossed, Happiness = 75%
self conscious emotions
Embarrassment, shame, pride, guilt
Require knowledge of of self
Emerge around 18-24 months
understanding emotions
3-6 months: Can differentiate (still face study) but may not understand meaning
7-12 months: Recognize emotions, understand something about meaning
emotional regulation (delay of gratification) marshmallow test
Small reward vs. big reward, 15 minute delay
3-5 year old children, 30% passed task
Strong predictor of success
Related to later social functioning, academic performance, relationship success, self-esteem, drug-use, criminal behavior etc. up to 20 years l
what is emotional regulation? how does it occur throughout development
Process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating emotions
Infants: Help from parents- avoid distress, soothe with voice, touching, holding, feeding
6 months- self soothing, shift gaze, stroking objects, sucking
2-6 years- avoidance and distraction
emotional regulation (display rules) (americans vs. japanese)
Culturally specific standards for emotion expression
Appear around preschool/kindergarten
American vs. Japanese: Display same emotions after viewing film alone, in the presence of an experimenter Japanese smiled rather than displayed negative emotions
The first negative emotion that is evident in newborn infants is:
Fear
Shame
Anger
Generalized distress
generalized distress
Nine-month-old Genevieve is upset but rubs her blanket and sucks her blanket and sucks her thumb to calm down. What is this scenario an example of?
Rumination
Self-soothing
Discrete emotions
Cognitive strategies
self soothing
Temperament
Individual characteristics that emerge early on, in the way that an individual responds to situations, people and objects
Relatively stable
Early differences in behaviors seen across cultures
Rothbart and bates Temperament dimensions
Fearful distress
Irritable distress
Attention span and persistence
Activity level
Positive affect/approach
Rhythmicity
Temperament and stability
Fetal activity related to adaptability in first half-year of life
Infants that are more inhibited
Elevated levels of fear in novel situations at age 2
Elevated levels of social inhibition at age 4.5
When is temperament not stable?
Three methods for assessing temerament******
Parent Reports
-Issues? Can be inconsistent, biased
Lab Observations
-Issues? Can vary with context
Biological Methods
-Heart rate, cortisol levels, EEG
Inhibited: High heart rate, high hormone level, more right -hemisphere frontal cortex activity
Which statement BEST describes the stability of temperament over time?
There are significant gender differences in stability of temperament over time.
Researchers have found that temperament changes in adolescence.
With some exceptions, temperament remain
With some exceptions, temperament remains stable over time.
Temperament and developmental outcomes
Negative, impulsive and unregulated infants poor peer relations, trouble with the law, difficulty being a partners/roommate
Behaviorally inhibited infants more likely to experience anxiety, depression and phobias
Attention span associated with later lea
Goodness of fit *****
Compatibility between environment and a child's temperament
Parental sensitivity necessary
Good fit is typically related to positive outcomes for children and parents
Poor fit puts child at risk for negative outcomes
Temperament and culture (chinese and developing countries)
Cultural values influence the associations between temperament and competence
Chinese- value shyness
Developing countries- desire intense, highly reactive children
The degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment is known as:
Behavioral inhibition.
Goodness of fit.
Family dynamics.
Social competence.
Goodness of fit.
Phases of attachment formation
Pre-attachment phase (birth- 6 weeks)
Recognize caregiver but not yet attached
Attachment in the making (6 weeks- 6-8 months)
Develop trust but do not object to separation
Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months-1.5-2 years)
Separation anxiety has developed!
Rec
Harlow
Demonstrated the importance of early social interactions
Raised infant monkeys in isolation from birth
Monkeys preferred soft "cloth" mother over wire mother
Food not as important as emotional/psychological needs
Bowlby (secure base, internal working model)
Bowlby's attachment theory
Biological predisposition
Secure base: attachment figure's presence provides young child security to explore environment
Internal working model: mental representation of relationship as a result of experiences with caregiver. Gu
Ainsworth strange situation
Student of Bowlby
Developed Strange Situation assessment
Series of increasingly stressful separations and reunions, and interactions with a stranger
Behaviors indicate one of four attachment categories
Attachment classifications**** Insecure Avoidant Attachment (in strange situation)
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
Infant seems indifferent/avoidant of caregiver
In Strange Situation, infant seems indifferent to caregiver, and is not upset when the caregiver leaves, or happy when he/she returns
Infant is not wary of stranger
15%
Attachment classifications**** Secure attachment
(in strange situation)
Secure Attachment
Child has high-quality relationship with attachment figure, uses caregiver as secure base
In Strange Situation- infant is very upset when caregiver leaves and is wary of stranger
Associated with parents who consistently respond, show aff
attachment classifications*** Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment (in strange situation)
Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
Infant clings to mother
In Strange Situation, infant is very upset when caregiver leaves, and wary of the stranger
When caregiver returns, infant seems ambivalent
9%
attachment classifications*** Disorganized Attachment (in strange situation)
Disorganized Attachment
Combination of avoidant and resistant traits
May elicit disoriented behaviors such as rocking or freezing when mother returns
Associated with high-risk home conditions, unpredictable caregivers
strange situation: disorganized behav
Influences on attachment (romantic partners)
Is there a relationship between infant attachment and adult romantic relationships?
High correlation between attachment and love style
Attachment outcomes (securely attached children/insecurely attached children)
Securely attached children:
Closer relationships with peers, better social skills
Higher self-esteem, more prosocial behavior
Higher grades in school despite same level of IQ as insecure
Insecurely attached children:
Avoidant = more likely to display "dev
Promoting secure attachment
Interventions
Train mothers to respond to infant cues, engage in positive interactions
Children are more likely to be categorized as securely attached, more social, cry less
Attachment Parenting (Dr. Sears)
Attachment and culture******
Similar attachment responses across cultures
Japan: No insecure/ avoidant babies
Interdependent culture, Japanese emphasize mother-child bond, more dependent
Germany: More insecure/avoidant
Culture fosters independence
Attachment parenting
Breast feeding
Baby wearing
Bed sharing (co-sleeping)
More time spent in mom's arms, more secure and well-adjusted children will be
Attachment and deprivation
Social deprivation in Russian orphanages
Reactive attachment disorder
Emotionally withdrawn/inhibited
Indiscriminate social disinhibition
Does daycare have harmful effects on children's development of secure attachments?
Does daycare have harmful effects on children's development of secure attachments?
NICHD study w/1300 kids
Attachment security (15 months) NOT related to: quality or amount of child care, age child started child care, or caregiver turnover
Which of the following is a key aspect of parental sensitivity in regards to the development of a secure attachment?
Being consistently responsive.
Talking to their infant a lot.
Co-sleeping.
Carrying the baby in a sling a lot
Being consistently responsive.
Bowlby's theory of attachment is based on:
Sociocultural theory
Ethological theory
Ecological theory
None of the theories listed
Ethological theory
Baumrind's Parenting Types******
Authoritative
Authoritarian
Permissive
Rejecting-Neglecting
Authoritative
Parents:
Clear standards and limits, firm enforcers
Allow autonomy within limits
Attentive and responsive
Children:
Competent, self-assured, popular, self-regulating, low antisocial behaviors
Rejecting-neglecting, how does it affect the child
Parents:
No limits
Not supportive, may be neglectful
Focused on own needs
Children:
Attachment problems, poor peer relationships, antisocial behavior, poor self-regulation, internalizing problems
Authoritarian
Parents:
Nonresponsive to child's needs
Enforce demands through parental power, threats, punishment
Expect compliance
Children:
Low social and academic competence
Children likely to be unhappy and unfriendly
Permissive
Parents:
Responsive to child's needs
Do not require child to regulate self or act appropriately
Children:
Tend to be impulsive, lack self-control, low school achievement, more misconduct and drug use
How culture influences parenting styles
European Americans
Values- Happy, self-reliant, individualistic
African/Asian Americans
Values- Family coherence, interdependent
Authoritarian parenting related to more positive outcomes in other cultures
parenting and SES
Parents with low SES- more likely to be authoritarian, value conformity, less educated
Differences may be due to parental beliefs/values and level of education
Changes in families (china)
China One-Child Policy
Only one child permitted
Restrictions relaxed in 2013
Policy ends in 2016
Consequence- female infanticide, disproportionate male-female ration
Changes in US families******
Changes in family size
Due to increases in maternal age, maternal employment, economic factors, divorce
Types of families
Traditional, One-child, Single parents, Divorced parents, Blended, Adoptive parents, Gay & Lesbian parents
Which of the following is a possible reason children in Japan may be classified as insecure/resistant at higher rates than children in the U.S.?
Japanese children are innately insecure.
Japanese mothers are very harsh with their young children.
Japanese c
apanese children, at the time of these studies, were much less likely to be in day care and experience separations from their mother.
Eric and his friend are playing a game that is beginning to become dangerous. Eric's dad tells them to stop. Eric pleads with his dad to let them continue. His dad says "no," but explains why. What type of parenting is Eric's dad using?
Permissive
Authori
authoritative
Parents and childcare
High quality care more important than number of hours in care
Quality linked to cognitive & language development, no adjustment problems
Quality = low child-caregiver ratio, small maximum group size, caregivers with background in early childhood education
Peer status categories***
Popular: Liked by many
Rejected: Disliked by many
Average: Liked & disliked, but not extreme
Neglected: Ignored by classmates
Controversial: Liked & disliked
Siblings- positive and negative roles (first born/only vs/ later born children)
Positive: Playmate, support, teacher
Negative: Rival, source of conflict, contribute to delinquency
Perceived inequitable treatment leads to difficulties during childhood
More rivalry and conflict in divorced/remarried families
First born children
-Parent
Sociometric status ****
Measurement of Social Preference
Nominate classmates they like/dislike
Preference of classmates they want or don't want to play with
is a measurement that reflects the degree to which someone is liked or disliked by their peers as a group.
Peer influence
Friends = good
Increase self-esteem and prosocial behavior, decrease depression, being bullied
Friends = bad
Potential increases in aggression and risk-taking, early sexual activity
Peer interaction and friendship
3-7 years: Children can have "best friends"
6-8 years: Define friendship based on activities
Choose friends who are similar to themselves in play and aggression
Late elementary school/Pre-adolescence- Define friendship in terms of mutual liking, closeness
Popular children vs. rejected children
Popular
Usually good social skills & self-regulation, cooperative, less aggressive
Rejected
Usually aggressive, hyperactive, impulsive OR withdrawn, timid
Cycle: Negative reaction from peers increase in negative behavior or withdrawal Stability of reject
Which of the following is a critical factor affecting whether maternal employment is associated with cognitive, language, or social problems in young children?
The ethnicity of the child-care providers.
The age of the child-care providers.
The overall qua
The overall quality of child care provided.
Children that reason using knowledge of social norms are at which Kolhlberg level?
Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional
Social Conventional
Conventional
Jackson gets many positive and negative nominations on a sociometric status measure. He is most likely a ____________ child.
Popular
Rejected
Neglected
Controversial
Controversial
Piaget's theory (moral development)
Moral reasoning develops with decline in ecocentrism and increase in abstract reasoning
Stage 1: Morality of Constraint (under 7)
Authority figures always right
Consequence of action act was good/bad
Rule breaking should result in punishment
Stage 2: Mora
Kohlberg's Model (moral development)
Preconventional level
Moral reasoning = obedience to authority, reward/punishment
Stage 1: Obedience Orientation- adults know right/wrong. Obey them to avoid punishment
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation-Do the right thing to get favors in return
Conventio
2 bases for Prosocial behavior
Emotional Development
empathy: ability to experience another person's emotions
sympathy: feeling of concern for another person's emotions
Cognitive Development
Perspective taking: must be able to see others' point of view to understand distress not one's
Gender socialization
Chores assigned by parents
Conversations with parents
Media
Culture
What is the point of perspective talking?
must be able to see others' point of view to understand distress not one's own
Gender Identity
Children trying to make sense of social world around them
Categorization allows for organization
Children able to produce labels around 18-24 months
Role of socialization
By 2.5, children aware of own gender
2-3 year-old children do not understand that ge
When do children recognize gender?
6-month-olds distinguish voices
9-month-olds discriminate pictures
Between 11-14 months- associate photos and voices
Social groups and gender (boys vs girls)
Children increasingly choose same-sex playmates beginning at age 3
Boys- larger groups, organized group games, more conflict and competition, more rough and tumble play, aggression
Girls- dyads or triads, more fantasy play themes with domestic or romantic
Freud vs. Erikson behavior motivated by what? how are they similiar/different?
Freud: Psychosexual theory, behavior motivated by needs
Erikson: Psychosocial theory, behavior motivated by crisis
Similarities: Stage theories, early experiences important
Differences: biological drives vs. importance of culture and social experiences, f