what BMI is overweight?
greater than 25
what BMI is obese?
greater than 30
what proportion of adults in the US are overweight?
2/3
what proportion of adults in the US are obese?
1/3
what state has the lowest obesity rate?
Colorado
how many adults are overweight and obese in the world?
overweight = 1.9 billion (39%)
obese = 650 million (13%)
What countries have the lowest rates of obesity?
Japan and Korea
Obesity rates in Mexico vs Saudi Arabia
rising in both even though Mexico isn't rich and Saudi Arabia is SUPER rich
What OECD country has highest obesity rate?
US
What ethnic/socioeconomic class has highest rate of obesity in the US?
non-hispanic black women (56%)
is low income a key contributor to rise of obesity?
NO - obese people always have option of reducing food intake and thus increasing food purchasing power
Ex of low income individuals w/ high rates of obesity
Native Americans
short term effects of obesity
very minimal effects on individual health
long term health effects of obesity
increased risk of chronic disease
- cardiovascular diseases
- diabetes w/ long term complications like CD, renal failure, retinal damage
- musculoskeletal disorders (osteoarthritis)
- cancers (endometrial, breast, colon)
adverse effects of obesity
reduction in quality of life (hard to do things)
reduces labor productivity (absenteeism)
increases morbidity (more disease = more $$$)
reduces life expectancy by 6-7 yrs (severe obesity up to 10 yrs)
how many premature deaths due to obesity each year in US?
300,000 deaths/yr
how much does obesity cost the US each year?
more than $100 billion/year
if this continues, in 2030 could reach $900
When does obesity occur?
when calories absorbed exceed calories burnt, difference is stored in the body as fat and weight is gained
what is the proportion of obese kids in the US?
1 in five kids
Adverse effects of individual undernutrition imply lower: (3)
lower income, lower quality of life, & lower human welfare
relationship b/w low income and undernutrition
low income is a MAJOR CAUSE of undernutrition
Economic efficiency
when resources are used to maximize aggregate welfare
Aggregate economic welfare
the value of all good consumed by a group of people, measured as GDP at national level
GDP per capita measures:
average income in a given country
highest GDPs in 2011 =
Norway, Singapore, US, Netherlands, Canada
3 indices of the HDI
per capita income
life expectancy
education
Relative income inequality (def, ability to be reduced and/or eliminated)
some individuals have a lower income than others; can be reduced but NOT eliminated
measured by Gini Index
Absolute income inequality (def, ability to be reduced and/or eliminated)
some individuals have a lower income than others; can be reduced AND eliminated
x and y in the Lorenz curve
x = bottom % of households
y = % of total income earned by this % of households
When Gini index is closer to 0
distribution of income is very equal
When Gini index is closer to 1
distribution of income is very unequal
what is the international income threshold for extreme poverty? how many people fell below poverty line in 2015?
$1.9/day/person
700 million in 2015
MDG
Millennium Development Goals
focus on eradicating poverty and hunger, improving education & environmental sustainability, promoting gender equality, improving maternal health, reducing child mortality, fighting HIV/AIDS/malaria, global partnerships
Targets for goal 1 of MDG (eradication of poverty and hunger)
1A: half proportion living on less than $1/day
1B: decent employment for all genders/ages
1C: halve proportion suffering from hunger
what country has made most progress toward reaching MDG
CHINA
- also India but not as much
what country has made least progress toward reaching MDG
Sub-Saharan Africa
When was goal 1A reached and due to poverty reduction in what countries?
2008, thanks to China & India
Was goal 1C a hit or miss?
narrowly missed! proportion of undernourished people in developing regions has almost halved since 1990, but 800 million people & 90 million kids are still undernoury
ICESCR and US status
international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights - US has signed but not ratified it bc what is human right is controversial
3 places where slavery still exists
India (10-20 million)
Africa
Haiti (300,000 restavecs aka kids sold by parents to work for free)
role of institutions in developing vs developed countries
developing countries: role of family & local institutions is stronger
developed countries: role of government and centralized institutions is stronger
3 conditions to reduce malnutrition
C1: access to nutritious food
C2: purchasing power high enough to allow for nutritious diet
C3: willing to consume a nutritious diet
Is C1 to reduce malnutrition satisfied at all levels?
at world level --> yes! enough food to provide for world pop
at local level --> no :( not enough food available daily in lots of people's lives
is C2 to reduce malnutrition satisfied?
not everywhere - undernutrition very prevalent among the poor; famine can arise w/out food shortage
solution to improving food purchasing power among the poor
increase their income! through economic development and resource transfers
is C3 to reduce malnutrition satisfied?
no --> more common in developed countries w/ obesity epidemic, people need more quality/variety of food available and more education
what is Y in program evaluation equation
Y is the performance indicator , represents the effects on the program and other factors on performance
DY > 0 means that the program has
positive effects on performance
false positive in program evaluation
program is seen to improve performance due to other factors (X)
false negative in program evaluation
program is seen to NOT improve performance due to other factors (X)
are F(1,X0) and F(0,X1) typically observable?
NO not directly --> counterfactual
Who does subsidizing food prices affect?
Who is NOT targeted by food subsidizing?
affects welfare of farmers and urban consumers (incentive to produce food!)
does NOT target the poor or malnourished
subsidizing consumption by
reducing the price of food on domestic markets
subsidizing food production by
increasing the price paid to farmers
which type of subsidy is more common in developed countries?
food PRODUCTION; subsidies to agriculture = $1 billion per day; help increase income of rural households
which type of subsidy is more common in developing countries?
food CONSUMPTION; lower prices of food increase purchasing power of non-farm households (--> urban bias)
what negative effects can come from NGOs "fundraising" by selling food on the local market?
downward pressure on local food prices, disincentive for local farmers to produce food, increases long term food insecurity
when is food aid useful
in reducing short term adverse effects of disasters/conflicts on malnutrition
world population trend since 1970
has been declining due to reduction in fertility rates
2 contributions of reductions in fertility rate
1. decreases demand for food (easier to improve nutritional status of living people)
2. aging population (France subsidizing kids)
more effective nutrition policies target the individuals who _____________________
are most likely to suffer from malnutrition aka low income/low food purchasing power people
current rate of food insecurity among US households
12-15%
How many US households were food insecure in 2012?
17.2 million (14.5% of households)
7 million (5.7%) had very low food security
how many children were food insecure in the US in 2012?
10% of households with kids (3.9 million)
how many food insecure households participated in federal food and nutrition programs in 2012?
> 59%
When was the US poverty line proposed and by who?
social security administration economist Mollie Orshansky in 1960s
3 steps to define poverty line for a household -->
1. ask nutritionist to ID a balanced diet for household
2. find cost of this diet at a grocery store
3. (cost x 3) to obtain pov line!
why was the x3 step created in calculating poverty line?
the poorest household that can afford their diet spends about 1/3 of their after-tax income on food
does the share of household income spent on food decline or incline with income?
decline
2 benefits of a nutrition based eval of poverty line
1. can automatically adjust to family size/composition and changes in food prices
2. doesn't change w/ tastes and preferences
food budget share =
and as household income increases, FBS ......
food expenditure/household income; DECREASES as household income increases
number of poor (people w/ income below poverty line) in the US in 2018
40 million (grown from 32 in 2000)
poverty rate (like # of poor but proportion form) in 2015-2018 in US
12-15%
when did US Food programs start and when did they show most growth
started in 1930s, grew most in 1960
what is the total budget cost of all US food assistance programs (2017)?
$70 billion in 2017 (up from $54)
SNAP cost in 2016 and how it has changed since 2000
in 2016 fell to $66.6 billion
in 2013 was up to $76
in 2000 was only $18
who does SNAP target?
all below poverty line households, increases low-income recipients' food purchasing power by providing subsidies
how many people used SNAP in 2015?
46 million (14% of US pop)
what is the largest domestic food program?
SNAP
budget cost for School Lunch program?
$12.7 billion in 2014
budget cost for School Breakfast program?
$3.7 billion in 2014
Subsidies ____________ with household poverty status
increase! for every program
how many students participated in the school lunch and breakfast programs in 2017?
lunch --> 30 million
breakfast --> 14 million
budget cost for WIC?
$6 billion in 2016
who does the WIC program target?
pregnant, postpartum and breastfeeding women, infants, kids <5 years old, members of poor households
requirements for WIC applicants
must be individually determined to be at "nutritional risk" by health professional
how many participated in WIC in 2012
9 million (1/2 kids, 1/4 infants and women)
which program precisely targets key nutrient intake of participants, providing them subsidies on only select nutrient-rich foods?
WIC
main difference b/w WIC and the other 3 food programs
other 3 do NOT restrict the type of subsidized food that is purchased
SNAP participants have been shown to increase their consumption of veggies T/F:
False
2 downfalls of SNAP/school breakfast/lunch
1. don't imply move towards a balanced diet
2. can increase consumption of high cal foods & contribute to obesity
Conditional cash transfer (CCT)
welfare programs that make cash payments to individuals conditional upon the receivers' actions (ex = kids going to school and getting doc check ups)
3 goals of Progresa and overall principal goal
1. reduce poverty
2. improve nutrition
3. increase education
Overall: permanently increase capabilities of individuals in extreme poverty
when was Progresa created and when/what did they change the name to?
created in 1997, changed name to Oportunidades in 2002
who does progresa target?
extreme poor (focus on moms and kids)
progresa gives _______________ to _______________:
fixed amount of cash to FEMALE head of household
2 requirements for progresa participation
1. kids attend school
2. basic healthcare
Purpose of benefit ceiling
encourages families to overcome poverty and control family size
does progresa put a tax on familys' earnings? why/why not
no, to avoid disincentives for working
Income per capita in Mexico in 2018
$20,000 (middle income country)
HDI in Mexico in 2018
0.77 (high!)
Gini Coefficient in Mexico...what this means
0.48 in 2014 (high aka they have high income inequality)
poverty rate in Mexico in 2013
33% below pov line
where did progresa start? and with what funding? expanded to _________ with loan from __________
started in rural areas w/ funding all from Mexican budget; expanded to urban areas with loan from American Development Bank
how many Mexicans were covered by progresa in 2006
5 million (26% of the pop)
Progresa provides additional grants for each child in school from _______________? how does it change for girls?
3rd to 11th grade, more payment for girls from middle school onward
If kid misses ___________ per month, the family doesn't get the grant
more than 3 days of school
Long run benefits for increased education for girls:
better child care, less child malnutrition, lower fertility
with progresa enrollment levels ____________ at ___________ levels, more for _____________ than _________
increased @ all levels, more for girls than boys
with progresa child labor levels ____________, more for _____________ than _________
decreased more for boys (15-25%)
progresa increased time devoted to studies and achievement on tests T/F:
false
fixed monthly grant in progresa:
$15.50
required hospital visits to receive nutrition supplements in progresa
5 visits during pregnancy
2 visits immediately postpartum
1 visit during lactation
kids 0-2 needs how many check-ups per year for progresa?
11 visits, and monthly weight/height checks
median food expenditures increased by what % in progresa
11% on healthy foods mostly
how did child growth rate, incidence of illness, and prevalence of anemia change with progresa?
increased (16%, 1 cm), decreased (25%), decreased (19%)
what is the most efficient plant in converting solar energy into chemical energy?
sugar cane! (7-8% compared to 1-2% for typical crops)
what is the average photosynthesis efficiency of earth?
1%
most crop plants store about ____% of sunlight in food products
0.2-0.5%
C3 plants
use the calvin cycle to fix carbon
C4 plants
use modified calvin cycle to fix carbon (corn, sugar cane, millet)
are C3 or C4 plants more efficient in fixing carbon
C4 under drought/high temp conditions
CAM plants
adapted to avoid water loss during photosynthesis so they are best in deserts, arid conditions, only 7% of plants (pineapple)
hybrid vigor exists when ________________:
cross-breeding b/w diff varieties improves plant productivity
how has US corn yield grown since 1940?
rapid adoption of hybrids has led to huge increases in yield (3% a year)
grew 4x b/w 1940 and 1990, still increasing 2-3% per year
Green revolution
1960-80, agricultural innovations that started w/ CIMMYT in Mexico and IRRI in Phillippines
- used genetic selection to create new rice/wheat varieties (more resistant, efficient, stable)
Where did the green rev help the most and where did it not help?
helped Asia and Latin America improve food security, didn't help Africa
effect of patents on hybrid seeds by biotech companies on farmers
farmers lose ability to save and multiply seeds from their GM crops
short run prospects for technology & food production
looking good, focus on dealing w/ poverty and income distribution issues
long run prospects for technology & food production
uncertainty about climate change and funding by private and public sector