What are 2 things that determine a person's blood type?
1. Antibodies found in plasma
2. Biomolecules found on the surface of RBC (surface antigens)
Antibodies are also called ______________
Immunoglobulins
What provides RBC's with the characteristics of specificity?
Plasma antibodies and surface antigens
Enzymes are compatible with ____________
Specific substrates
What happens to one's blood when they are given the wrong blood type?
Agglutination or clumping of the blood
What type of antibodies does those with type A blood have?
Anti-B
What type of antibodies does those with type B blood have?
Anti A
What type of antibodies does those with type AB blood have?
None
What type of antibodies does those with type O blood have?
Anti A and B
What type of antigen does those with type A blood have?
A antigen
What type of antigen does those with type B blood have?
B antigen
What type of antigen does those with type AB blood have?
A and B antigens
What type of antigen does those with type O blood have?
None
Can a person with type A blood donate to a person with type B blood?
No
Can a person with type A blood donate to a person with type AB blood?
Yes
Be able to do a genetic cross using blood types
...
When performing a genetic cross, we can represent O with a ___________
Lower case i
What works together to circulate blood, nutrients and oxygen throughout the body?
Heart and blood vessels
The heart's contractions and rhythm is initiated by the _____________
Sinoatrial node (SA node)
The SA node passes the signal to the ____________
Atrioventricular node (AV node)
What part of the heart makes modifications to the heart's contractions and rhythm?
AV node
The cardiovascular system is innervated by nerves arising from the ___________
ANS
The heart is innervated by __________________ nerve fibers
Parasympathetic and sympathetic
What nerve innervates the AV node?
Left vagus
What nerve innervates the SA node?
Right vagus
______________________ nerve fibers innervate both the AV and SA node
Parasympathetic nerve fibers
What part of the brain controls the flow of blood through the cardiovascular system?
Medulla oblongata
What nerve fibers increase heart rate and contractility?
Sympathetic nerve fibers
What nerve fibers decreases heart rate?
Parasympathetic
What center increases heart rate?
Cardioacceletory center
What center decreases heart rate?
Cardioinhibitory center
What is mediated by adrenergic receptors?
Cardioacceletory center; sympathetic nerve fibers
Adrenergic receptors receive ______________
Norepinephrine
What is mediated by muscarinic receptors?
Cardioinhibitory center; parasympathetic fibers
What type of receptors receives Ach?
Muscarinic receptors
What is considered one cardiac cycle?
Beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next
What are the 4 stages of the cardia cycle?
Ventricular filling
Isovolumetric contraction
Ventricular ejection
Isovolumetric relaxation
Aka diastole
Ventricular filling
What happens during ventricular filling?
Ventricles fill with blood; ventricles are at rest
What happens during isovolumetric contraction?
Ventricles contract but do not eject blood
What happens during ventricular ejection?
Ventricles eject blood through the atrioventricular valves
Systole aka
Ventricular ejection
What happens during isovolumetric relaxation?
The heartbeat has ended and prepares to move into ventricular filling
What can we use to monitor and study the heartbeat?
Electrocardiogram
How does the electrocardiogram monitor the heart?
Records waves of depolarization of structures within the heart
What identifies depolarization of the atria, ventricles and perkinje fibers?
QRS complex
P wave =
Depolarization of atria
Q wave =
Depolarization of ventral septum
R wave =
Depolarization of ventricles
S wave =
Depolarization of Perkinje fibers
T wave =
Repolarization of ventricles
What represents depolarization of ventricular muscle cells?
QRS complex
What are the 3 jobs of the digestive system?
1. processes food (digestion)
2. extracts nutrients from it (absorption)
3. eliminates the residue (defecation)
The digestive system provides material for _______________
Cell division, growth and development
What are organs of the alimentary canal?
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
SI
LI
What are accessory organs of the digestive system?
Salivary glands
Liver
Pancreas
What has a continuous tube that opens to the external environment at both ends?
Alimentary canal
What is the process of hydrolyzing larger food molecules (polymers) into absorbable monomers?
Digestion
For materials to reach the inner cells of the body what must happen?
Pass through epithelial cells of the digestive tract into the blood (absorbed)
What parts of SI become specialized for absorption?
Villi and microvilli
Review what happens during digestion
(In PowerPoint)
...
What are 2 types of metabolism?
Anabolism and catabolism
What type of reactions build large molecules out of smaller ones?
Anabolic
What type of reactions require input of energy?
Anabolic reactions
What type of reactions break down (hydrolyze) large molecules into their subunits?
Catabolic reactions
What type of reactions release the subunit molecules into the blood?
Catabolic
What type of reactions are endergonic?
Anabolic
What type of reactions are exergonic?
Catabolic
Diet maintains 4 things:
1. Supply of nutrients to body cells
2. Energy source for fuel
3. Growth
4. Replacement of worn out parts
What are 6 nutrient classes recommended for daily consumption?
1. Carbohydrates
2. Fats
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water
What can only provide energy measured in Kilocalories?
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins
1 gram of carbohydrate = ______ kilo calories of energy
4
1 gram of fat = ______ kcal
9
1 gram of protein = ____ kcal
4
_______ calories = 1 kilocalorie
1000
What are examples of lipids?
Triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids
What are artificially prepared by hydrogenating vegetable oils?
Trans fats
What raise LDL cholesterol ("bad cholesterol")?
Saturated fats and trans fatty acids
What lower the HDL ("goof cholesterol")?
Saturated fats and trans fatty acids
Nutrients that do not contribute energy to the body do not require _____________
Digestion
What facilitates the absorption of fat soluble vitamins which are absorbed from the small intestines?
Digestion, emulsification and absorption of lipids
Recommended daily calorie intake for women?
1200-1400
Recommended daily calorie intake for men?
2000-3000
Recommended daily intake of carbohydrates?
175 g/day
Recommended daily intake of fats?
greater than 30% of daily calorie intake
Recommended daily intake of protein?
44-60 g/day (15% of daily calorie intake)
Recommended daily intake of cholesterol?
Greater than 200 mg/dL
Recommended daily intake of water?
1 mL per 1 kcal of energy
Body weight depends on ________________
Balance between anabolism and catabolism (balance between intake and use of energy)
The balance between anabolism and catabolism is influenced by the intake of energy from food molecules and is regulated by ____________________
Peptide hormones
What regulates the balance between anabolism and catabolism?
Hypothalamus
How do we gain weight?
More energy is taken into the body than what can be used (anabolism predominated)
The shifts in metabolism are regulated by ___________________
levels of hormone secretion
BMI =
height-to-weight ratio
BMI stands for
Body mass index
How do we figure out BMI?
body weight/height (meters) squared (W/h2)
What is the minimum amount of energy required by the body at rest?
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Most of our caloric output is spent when?
At rest
Saliva contains what enzyme and what does that enzyme do?
Amylase; breaks down starches into polysaccharides and disaccharides
The bolus passes through the esophagus pass the ___________ to enter the stomach
Cardiac sphincter
Where does the stomach end?
Pyloric sphincter
What do we call the liquid that results from the mechanical and chemical activity of the stomach with the bolus?
Chyme
What are the 2 functions of the stomach?
Store food after ingestion
Regulate the flow of food into the SI
What is the major site for food degradation and absorption of food molecules into the body?
SI
What does the pancreas produce?
Lipase
Sodium bicarbonate
What does lipase break down?
Fats
What is the pH of the stomach?
1.5
What does sodium bicarbonate do?
Neutralizes the chyme as it enters the SI
What does the liver secrete?
Bile
Where is bile stored?
Gall bladder
What increases the surface area for absorption?
Villi and microvilli
Chyme is transformed into ______
Feces
What are the 2 functions of the LI?
Concentrate chyme by removing water
Contains bacteria which produce vitamins K and B
What factors are examined when looking at a urine sample?
Appearance and color
Odor
pH
specific gravity
What is the end product breakdown of hemoglobin?
Urachrome
The color of urine depends on the concentration of the pigment ______________
Urachrome
What might a pale yellow urine color indicate?
diabetes insipidus
granular kidney
or can be very dilute due to a large intake of water
What might a milky color urine indicate?
Fat globules or pus corpuscles and possibly indicated a UTI
What might reddish color urine indicate?
Due to food pigments, certain drugs or blood in the urine
What might a greenish color urine indicate?
Bile pigment or certain bacterial infections
What might a brown-black urine color indicate?
metallic poisonings, hemorrhages due to things like renal injury or malaria
A fishy smell of urine may indicate what?
Cystitis
A fecal smell of urine may indicate what?
Intestinal urinary fistula
What conditions could be present if the urine is "sweet-tasting"?
Diabetes or acetonuria
What is the average urine pH?
4.5-8.0
What could lower pH?
Fever and acidosis
What could raise pH?
Anemia, vomiting and renal retention
What do we call the measure of the density of a substance compared to the density of water?
Specific gravity
What is the usual specific gravity range of urine?
1.015-1.025
Specific gravity is inversely proportional to _________________
Urine volume
A high specific gravity can indicate what disease?
Nephritis or diabetes mellitus
A low specific gravity can indicate what disease?
Nephritis
What hormone does a pregnancy test recognize?
human chorionic gonadotropin
Common crystals may be present normally in ___________________________
Acid, neutral or alkaline urine
Abnormal types of crystals are almost always associated only with _____________
Acid or neutral urine
What represent cylindrical molds formed in the renal tubular lumina?
Cast
How are cast formed?
Precipitation of proteins and agglutination of cells within the renal tubules
What are the major classes of casts?
Hyaline
Epithelial
Granular
Fatty
Waxy
RBC
WBC
Where do cast originate from?
Renal parenchyma
What can the presence of albumin in the urine indicate?
Kidney malfunction since one of the functions of the kidneys is to filter out albumin and glucose and return it to the body
The presence of glucose can indicate what disease?
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is characterized by ______________
Insulin deficiency
What is a hallmark of diabetes?
Increase concentration of blood sugar levels
What are symptoms of diabetes mellitus?
Excessive urine output, dehydration accompanied by thirst and increased appetite
If one has diabetes what else can be found in the urine?
Ketones
What disease may a person have when he or she suddenly begins a very low carb diet?
Ketones
Phenylketonuria is a failure of what?
The body to produce the enzyme necessary to oxidize phenylalanine
How many people suffer from PKU?
1 in every 11,000
How does one get PKU?
Its a recessive trait (so both parents have to have it)
How is PKU tested in babies?
Not by urine test but blood test by a prick in the foot
After birth, how many weeks may past before phenylpruvic acid is excreted into the urine?
2-6 weeks
State laws require PKU testing within _______________
28 days or less
Oxygen is transported through the blood bound to _______________
Hemoglobin
What is the structure of hemoglobin?
4 subunits (2 alpha and 2 beta) and 4 heme groups
What is the byproduct of cellular metabolism?
Carbon dioxide
Where does constant gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide take place?
Capillaries
What is the total volume of air that the lungs contain?
Lung capacity
When studying pulmonary compliance there are 2 main factors being observed:
Gas/air and volume
What is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle during regular breathing? Average measurement?
Tidal volume; 500 mL
What do we call the amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort? Average measurement?
Expiratory reserve volume; 1200 mL
What do we call the amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can be inhaled with maximum effort? Average measurement?
Inspiratory reserve volume; 3000 mL
What do we call the remaining air in the lungs after maximum expiration? Average amount?
Residual volume; 1300 mL
What do we call the total amount of air that can be inhaled and then exhaled with maximum effort? Average amount?
Vital capacity; 4700 mL
How do we find vital capacity?
ERV + TV + IRV
What do we call the maximum amount of air the lungs can contain? Average amount?
Total lung capacity; 6000 mL
How do we calculate total lung capacity?
RV + VC
What is the percentage of the vital capacity that can be exhaled in a given time interval?
Forced expiratory volume