USA Pathology Exam 2

Acromegaly

A chronic syndrome of growth hormone excess, most often caused by a pituitary macroadenoma. Characterized by gradual coarsening and enlargement of bones and facial features.

Addison's disease

-Hypo function of adrenal cortex
-Decreased Cortisol:
*Decreased gluconeogenesis
*Weakness, Exhausted, Anorexia, Weight loss, and Dehydration
-Decreased Aldosterone:
*Increased Na excretion
*Dehydration, Hypotension, Decreased CO
-Management - drugs
-Reha

Cretinism

A congenital condition caused by lack of thyroid hormones, characterized by arrested physical and mental development, myxedema, dystrophy of the bones and soft tissues, and lowered basal metabolism.

Cushing's disease

-Hyper function of Adrenal Cortex
*Hypercortisolism, Excessive breakdown of protein and lipid reserves, impaired glucose metabolism.
*Weakness, Buffalo hump, Round face, Osteoprosis, Excessive hairiness
-Management - correct imbalance
- Rehab implications

Diabetes insipidus

a rare form of diabetes resulting from a deficiency of vasopressin (the pituitary hormone that regulates the kidneys)

Diabetes mellitus

diabetes caused by a relative or absolute deficiency of insulin and characterized by polyuria

Exophthalmos

Abnormal anterior protrusion of the eyeball. May be due to thyrotoxicosis, tumor of the orbit, orbital cellulitis, leukemia, aneurysm, or vascular malformation.

Glycosuria

An abnormal amount of glucose in the urine, suggestive of Diabetes mellitus.

Goiter

Enlargement of the thyroid gland. May be caused by thyroiditis, benign thyroid nodules, malignancy, iodine deficiency, or any other condition that causes HYPER- or HYPO-function of the thyroid gland.

Hirsutism

Condition characterized by the excessive growth of hair or the presence of hair in unusual places, especially in women. In women, hirsutism is usually caused by abnormalities of androgen production or metabolism.

Hypocalcemic tetany

Intermittent tonic muscular spasms caused by a low concentration of calcium in the blood.

Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)

Type 1, juvenile onset. Caused by autoimmune destruction of the insulin-secreting beta-cells of the pancreas resulting in nearly complete insulin deficiency. Prevalence of 0.3%-0.4% of DM cases in general population.

Ketoacidosis

Acidosis due to an excess of ketone bodies that occurs when there is inadequate production of insulin to sustain normal fat metabolism.

Myxedema

Infiltration of the skin by mucopolysaccharides, giving it a waxy or coarsened appearance. Seen in patients with HYPOthyroidism.

Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

Type 2, adult-onset. Usually affects obese, middle-aged people with sedentary lifestyles. Results partly from a decreased sensitivity of muscle cells to insulin-mediated glucose uptake and partly from a relative decrease in pancreatic insulin secretion.

Polyuria

Excessive secretion and discharge of urine. Occurs in diabetes mellitus, chronic nephritis, nephrosclerosis, and hyperthyroidism.

Adrenocorticotropin

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Aldosterone

Mineralocorticoid that increases sodium reabsorption by the kidneys, thereby indirectly regulating blood levels of potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate, as well as pH, blood volume, and blood pressure.

Calcitonin

Hormone produced by the thyroid inhibits osteoclast activity, inhibits phosphate reabsorption by the kidneys, increases calcium and magnesium reabsorption by the kidneys. Calcitonin opposes PTH.

Catecholamine

One of many biologically active amines, including metanephrine, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, derived from the amino acid Tyrosine. They have a marked effect on the nervous and CV systems, metabolic rate, temp, and smooth muscle.

Electrolyte

An ionized salt in the blood, tissue fluids, and cells. Acids, bases, and salts are common electrolytes. Includes Na, K, and Cl.

Glucocorticoid

A general classification of adrenal cortical hormones that are primarily active in protecting against stress and in affecting protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The most important one is Cortisol (hydrocortisone).

Glycemia

The level of sugar (glucose) in the blood.

Hypokalemia

Abnormally low concentration of potassium in the blood.

Hyponatremia

A decreased concentration of Na in the blood.

Hypothalamus

-The bottom half of the diencephalon.
-Highest level of Endocrine Control
-Controls the function of Endocrine Organs by Neural and Hormonal pathways
- Exerts Hormonal Control

Oxytocin

A peptide hormone secreted by the hypothalamus and stored in the pituitary gland. Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown.

Polydipsia

Excessive thirst, a symptom that may suggest dehydration, HYPERglycemia, or HYPOvolemia.

Tetraiodothyronine (T4)

Thyroxine. Secreted by the thyroid gland. Increases the use of all food types for energy production and increases the rate of protein synthesis in most tissues.

Tetany

Intermittent tonic muscular spasms that typically involve the arms or legs.

Thyrotoxicosis

Hyperthyroidism. Increased levels of thyroid hormone.

Vasopressin

ADH. Limits amount of water excreted by kidneys.

adenohypophysis

-Anterior Pituitary
*Short
*Hypophyseal Portal System
*Hypothalamus secretes hormones causing tropic hormone release

hyperglycemia

-Insulin Deficiency causes DM
-Abnormally high blood sugar usually

glycosuria

the presence of abnormally high levels of sugar in the urine

Endocrine Cells

-Glandular secretory cells that release secretions into the extracellular fluid
-The chemicals released may affect only local adjacent cells or cells throughout the body

Various glands of the Endocrine system

-located throughout the body
-capable of synthesizing and releasing chemical messengers called hormones
*transported by the bloodstream to the cells and organs on which they have a specific regulatory effect

Hypothalamus produces...

ADH, Oxytocin, and Regulatory hormones.

Anterior Pituitary

-Hypothalamic controlled by Releasing Hormone and Inhibiting Hormone
*Tropic (Simulating Hormones)
1. ACTH: Adrenal Gland
2. TSH: Thyroid Gland
3. FSH and LH: Sexual Organs
*Effector Hormones
1. GH: Act on Long Bones
2. PRL: Act for milk production
*Affec

Posterior Pituitary

-Neural Stimulation
*provokes secretion of 2 effector hormones
1. Oxytocin
2. ADH

Thyroid Gland

-Secretes iodinated Thyroid Hormones
*T4, T3, and Calcitonin
*Necessary for normal growth and development
1. elevate O2 & energy consumption
2. increase HR & Contractility
3. Increase sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation
4. Stimulate the stimulation of

Adrenal Medulla

-Produces NE and E
1. Mobilize glycogen reserves in mm and breakdown of glucose
2. stored fats broken down
3. glycogen breakdown in liver
4. HR & Contractility increase

Adrenal Cortex

-Secretes:
1. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone
*Regulates Na reabsorption and K secretion and regulation of BP
*Stimulated by angiotensin II
2. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol
*Accelerates rate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation
*Anti-inflammatory effects

Pancreatic Islets release...

-Produces Glucagon from Alpha Cells
*releases stored glucose to raise blood sugar
-Produces Insulin from Beta Cells
*facilitates glucose transport, storage, protein synthesis and free fatty acid uptake.

Parathyroid glands

-Secretes PTH
1. Regulates Ca and Phosphate metabolism
2. Stimulates Ca re-absorption and Phosphate from bone
3. Reabsorption of Ca and excretion of phosphate by Kidneys
4. Combined action with Vitamin D: absorption of Ca and Phosphate from GI

5 general functions of Endocrine System

1. Differentiation - reproductive and CNS of the fetus
2. Coordination - male and female reproductive systems
3. Stimulation of Sequential Growth - gorwth and development during childhood and adolescence
4. Maintenance - optimal internal environment throu

Releasing Hormones

stimulates synthesis and secretion

Inhibiting Hormones

prevent synthesis and secretion

3 Methods pf Hypothalamic Control

1. Secretion of regulatory Hormones to Anterior Pituitary and Posterior Pituitary
2. Control of sympathetic output to Adrenal Medulla
3. Production of Oxytocin and ADH

Neurohypophysis

-Posterior Pituitary
-Long
-Axons of Hypothalamus
-Exocytosis into circulation

ADH (Vasopressin)

-Stimulus:
*Rise in (electrolyte/osmolarity) in blood
*Fall in blood volume or pressure
-Controls concentrations of body fluids
*by decreasing the amount of H2O lost at Kidneys
*H2O absorbed by gut is retained reducing concentration of electrolytes in ECF

Hypoglycemia

-Insulin excess