Sociological Representation
the sort of representation that takes place when representatives have the same racial, ethnic, religious, or educational backgrounds as their constituents
Agency Representation
the sort of representation that takes place when constituents have the power to hire and fire their representatives
Incumbency
the ability to hold a political office election after election
Redistricting
the process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative representatives. This happens every ten years to reflect shifts in population or in response to legal challenges to existing districts
Gerrymandering
the process of redrawing legislative district boundary lines to provide political advantage or disadvantage
Conference/Caucus
a gathering of House Republicans every two years to elect their House leaders. Democrats call their gathering the caucus
Speaker of the House
the elected leader of the majority party is later proposed to the whole House and is automatically elected to the position of Speaker of the House
Majority/Minority Leader
the elected leader of each party in the House of Representatives or in the Senate. In the House, the majority leader is subordinate in the party hierarchy to the Speaker of the House
Whips
assistants to the party leaders; responsible for coordinating the party's legislative strategy, building support for key issues, and counting votes
Standing Committees
permanent committees continue in existence from congress to congress; they have the power to propose and write legislation
Conference Committee
temporary joint committees whose members are appointed by the Speaker of the House and the presiding officer of the Senate; charged with reaching a compromise on legislation that has been passed by the House and the Senate, but in different versions
Filibuster
a tactic used by members of the Senate to prevent action on legislation they oppose by continuously holding the floor and speaking until the majority backs down. Once given the floor, senators have unlimited time to speak, and it require a vote of three-f
Cloture
a rule allowing three-fifths of the members in the US Senate to set a time limit on debate over a given bill
Veto
the president's constitutional power to prevent a bill from becoming a law
Pocket Veto
a veto that occurs when the president does not sign a passed bill within ten days of receiving it, and Congress adjourned
Roll-Call Vote
a vote in which each legislator's yes or no vote is recorded as the clerk calls the names of the members alphabetically
Appropriations
the amounts of money approved by Congress in statutes (bills) that each unit or agency of government can spend
Oversight
the effort by Congress, through hearings, investigations, and other techniques, to exercise control over the activities of executive agencies by overseeing or supervising how legislation is carried out by the executive branch
Constituency
the people in the district from which an official is elected
Bill
a proposed law that has been sponsored by a member of Congress and submitted to the clerk of the House or Senate
Bicameral
a two-chambered legislature: opposite of unicameral
Logrolling
a legislative practice wherein agreements are made between legislators in voting for or against a bill; vote trading
Patronage
the resources available to higher officials, including making partisan appointments to offices and conferring grants, licenses, or special favors to supporters
Pork Barrel
appropriations made by legislative bodies for local projects that are often not needed but that are created to help local representatives win re-election in their home districts
Expressed Powers
specifically defined powers granted to the president in the Constitution; cannot be revoked by the Congress or any other agency without an amendment to the Constitution
Delegated Powers
powers given to the president by Congress
Commander in Chief
the power of the president as commander of the national military and the state national guard units when called into service; makes the president the highest military authority in the executive branch
Inherent Powers
powers claimed by a president that are not expressed in the Constitution, but are inferred from it; are most often asserted by presidents in times of war or national emergency
War Powers Resolution
a resolution of congress that the president can send troops into action abroad only by authorization of Congress, or if American troops are already under attack or serious threat
Executive Order
a rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect and formal status of legislation
White House Staff
composed mainly of analysts and advisers who are closest to, and most responsive to, the president's needs and preferences
Executive Office of the President (EOP)
the permanent agencies that perform defined management tasks for the president
Cabinet
The secretaries, or chief administrators, of the major departments of the federal government. Cabinet secretaries are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate
Executive Agreement
an agreement, made between the president and another country, that has the force of a treaty but does not require the Senate's "advice and consent
Legislative Initiative
the president's inherent power to bring a legislative agenda before Congress
Signing Statement
an announcement made by the president when signing bills into law, often presenting the president's interpretation of the law
Bureaucracy
the complex structure of offices, tasks, rules, and principles of organization that are employed by all large-scale institutions to coordinate effectively the work of their personnel
Implementation
the efforts of departments and agencies to translate laws into specific bureaucratic rules and actions
Departments
the largest subunit of the executive branch, each of which is headed by a department secretary
Independent Agency
set up by Congress outside the departmental structure altogether, even though the president appoints and directs the heads of these agencies
Government Corporation
a third type of government agency but are more like private businesses performing and charging for a market service, such as delivering the mail (USPS) or transporting railroad passengers (Amtrak)
Regulatory Agencies
bureaus within departments, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) within the Department of Health and Human Services
Fiscal Policy
the use of taxing, monetary, and spending powers to manipulate the economy
Federal Reserve System (Fed)
a system of twelve Federal Reserve Banks that facilitates exchanges of cash, checks, and credit; regulates member banks; and uses monetary policies to fight inflation and deflation, and is headed by the Federal Reserve Board
Revenue Agencies
responsible for collecting taxes
Merit System
a product of civil service reform, in which appointees to positions in public bureaucracies must objectively be deemed qualified for those positions
Privatization
removing all or part of a program from the public sector to the private sector
Criminal Law
involves the branch of law that deals with disputes or actions involving criminal penalties (as opposed to civil law); regulates the conduct of individuals, defines crimes, and provides punishment for criminal acts
Plaintiff
the party that brings a complaint or charges
Defendant
the one against whom a complaint is brought in a criminal or civil case
Civil Law
Disputes among individuals or between individuals and the government, including private law and governmental actions, to settle disputes that do not involve criminal penalties
Precedents
(prior decisions whose principles are used by judges as the basis for their decisions in present cases
Stare Decisis
let the decision stand"; the doctrine that a previous decision by a court applies as a precedent in similar cases until that decision is overruled
Trial Court
the first court to hear a criminal or civil case
Court of Appeals
a court that hears the appeals of trial court decisions
Supreme Court
the highers court in a particular state or in the United States; it serves an appellate function
Plea Bargains
negotiated agreements in criminal cases in which a defendant agrees to plead guilty in return for the state's agreement to reduce the severity of the criminal charge the defendant is facing
Jurisdiction
the sphere of a court's power and authority
Due Process of Law
the right of every citizen against arbitrary action by national or state governments
Writ of Habeas Corpus
fundamental safeguard of individual rights designed to prevent unlawful imprisonment; a court order that the individual in custody be brought into court and shown the cause for detention
Senatorial Courtesy
before the president makes a formal nomination for the Supreme Court, the senators from the candidate's own state must indicate that they support the nominee
Chief Justice
presides over the Court's public sessions and conferences
Writ of Certiorari
granted whenever four of the nine justices agree to review a decision of a lower court; "To make more certain
Solicitor General
the third-ranking official in the Justice Department (below the attorney general and the deputy attorney general) but is the top government lawyer in virtually all cases before the Supreme Court in which the government is a party
Amicus Curiae
friend of the court"; not a direct party to a case but seeks to assist the Supreme Court in reaching a decision by presenting additional briefs
Briefs
written documents that may be several hundred pages long in which the attorneys explain why the Court should rule in favor of their client
Oral Argument
attorneys for both sides appear before the Court to present their positions and answer the justices' questions
Dissenting Opinion
written by a justice in the minority in a particular case in which the justice wishes to express his or her reasoning in the case
Judicial Restraint
refusing to go beyond the clear words of the Constitution in interpreting its meaning
Judicial Activism
judicial philosophy that posits that the Court should go beyond the clear words of the Constitution in interpreting its meaning
Judicial Review
the power of the courts to review and if necessary declare actions of the legislative and executive branches invalid or unconstitutional. The Supreme Court asserted this power in Marbury v. Madison
Opinion
the written explanation of the Supreme Court's decision in a particular case
Supremacy Clause
clause in Article VI of the Constitution that states that laws passed by the national government and all treaties "shall be the supreme law of the land" and superior to all laws adopted by any state or any subdivision