the scientific study of behavior and its causes
psychology
what are the goals of psychological science?
to describe, explain, predict, and change behavior; also to provide tools to analyze why people behave the way they do
a scientist who studies the mind and behavior of humans and animals and are interested in controlling or changing behavior
psychologist
more psychologists work in _________ settings, such as __________ and __________ than any other setting. however, __________ and ___________ practice settings, both of which are contexts in which many psychologists in mental health professions work, toget
academic; colleges; universities; clinical; private
systematic methods are the __________ part of psychology
scientific
everything we do that can be directly observed
behavior
what does behavior include?
mental and physiological processes, as well as observable behavior
thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly
mental processes
the process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence
critical thinking
scientists are __________ thinkers. they ___________ and ________ what others consider factual. they accept _________ at face value
critical; question; test; nothing
scientists are __________ because they want to know why things in the world are the way they are and how they became that way. science is concerned with ____________
curious; asking questions
scientists are ___________ because they ask questions about things that other people take for granted
skeptical
psychological research often turns up the unexpected in _______________. such results are called ____________ because they contradict our intuitive impressions of how the world works
human behavior; counterintuitive
scientists apply _____________ in conducting research. they try to see things as they really are, not just as the observer would like them to be
objectivity
to gather objective evidence, what do scientists rely on?
empirical methods
gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning
empirical method
the rational investigation of the underlying principles of being and knowledge
philosophy
Wilhelm Wundt explored _________ of consciousness. William James explored the ___________ of the mind and behavior
structures; purposes
what does psychology have in its roots?
philosophy, the natural sciences of biology, and physiology
who concentrated on discovering the basic elements or "structures" of mental processes and studied structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt
identifies the elemental parts or structures of the human mind (mental processes)
structuralism (what)
William James's perspective was not what the mind is (structures) but _______________
what it is for (purpose)
emphasized the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment; it focuses on human interactions with the outside world to understand the purpose of thoughts
functionalism (why)
who proposed the principle of natural selection?
Charles Darwin
an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring; the process by which the environment determines who wins that competition
natural selection
an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
the biological approach
the largest contribution to psychological psychology has come through the emergence of ___________
neuroscience
the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system
neuroscience
what does neuroscience emphasize?
that the brain and nervous system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion
this approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants
behavioral approach
who are three notable behaviorists?
John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Paviov
the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments
the theory of operant conditioning (Skinner)
___________ is a function of change in overt behavior. changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events that occur in the environment
learning
a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind
behaviorism (Watson)
this approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives and society's demands, and early childhood and family experiences
the psychodynamic approach
who was the founding father of psychodynamic approach?
Sigmund Freud
a therapeutic technique, which involves an analyst bringing about conflicts by talking with the individual about childhood thoughts, memories, and feelings
psychoanalysis
this approach emphasizes a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and freedom to choose one's destiny; the environment does not control us
the humanistic approach
name two notable humanistic theorists
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
when does self-actualization occur?
when a person's "ideal self" is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image)
what are Carl Roger's 5 characteristics of the fully functioning person?
1. open to experience
2. existential living
3. trust feelings
4. creativity
5. fulfilled life
this approach emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing and thinking how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems
the cognitive approach
this approach is centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors
the evolutionary approach
____________ is one of the founders of the field of evolutionary psychology
David Buss
examines the influences of social and cultural environments on behavior
the sociocultural approach
what differences does the sociocultural approach explore?
1. differences between ethnic and cultural groups
2. differences within and across countries
what are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
1. observing some phenomenon
2. formulating hypotheses and predictions
3. testing through empirical research
4. drawing conclusions
5. evaluating conclusions
the researcher's motivation and desire to learn
curiosity
anything that can change
variable
a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations
theory
a key characteristic of a scientific theory is that it must be ____________, meaning that even a scientist who believes that a theory is true must be able to generate ideas about research that would prove the theory wrong and test those ideas
falsifiable
a testable prediction that derives logically from a theory
hypothesis
a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study
operational definition
a key aspect of the process of testing hypotheses; involves applying mathematical procedures to understand what the numerical information means
data analysis
refers to all the information (numbers) collected in a study
data
what are the critical thinking questions? (3)
1. is our hypothesis supported?
2. how do the results alter our original theory?
3. can these findings be generalized to other people in other settings doing other activities?
__________ protects the field from biased and poorly designed research. __________ helps detect a convergence of evidence from multiple studies
peer review; meta-analysis
involves finding out about the basic dimensions of some variable
descriptive research
___________ relationships are interested in discovering relationships between variables
correlational
concerns establishing causal relationships between variables
experimental research
what is the goal of descriptive research? what are its methods?
to describe some phenomenon and determine its basic dimensions
methods: observation, surveys and interviews, and case studies
presents a standard set of questions or items to obtain people's self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic
surveys and interviews
how can surveys and interviews be problematic?
because sometimes participants will answer the questions in a way they believe is socially acceptable instead of how they feel; also due to unclear language
an in-depth look at a single individual conducted by a clinical psychologist; can also involve in-depth explorations of particular families or social groups
case study/ case history
tells us about the relationships between variables, and its purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together
correlational research
the degree of relationship between two variables expressed as a numerical value (r)
correlation coefficient
a ___________ correlation occurs when the variables move in the same direction, so that if one variable increases the other variables also increases. a ___________ correlation occurs when the variables move in opposite directions, so that if one variable
positive; negative
correlation __________ equal causation
does not
systematic observation that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time; may suggest causal relationships
longitudinal design
what is the goal of experimental research?
to determine causation through random assignment to groups
a carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable
experiment
researcher's assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups
random assignment
a manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are; the cause
independent variable
a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated
confederate
the outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable; the effect
dependent variable
the participants in the experiment who receive the treatment that is of interest to the researcher; the participants who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents; hypothesized and manipulated
experimental group
the participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the treatment variable this is the comparison group; treated equally, except no manipulation
control group
participant serves as own control group
within-participant design
groups are not assigned randomly
quasi-experimental design
experiments are one of the few research designs that allow you to directly test _______ something happens, that is, to test for cause and effect
why
the soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment
validity
the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to address
external validity
the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable
internal validity
occurs when the experimenter's expectations influence the results of the study
experimenter bias
any aspects of a study that communicate to the subject how the researcher wants them to behave
demand characteristics
occurs when the participant's behavior during an experiment is influenced by how the participant believes he or she is supposed to be behaving
researcher participant bias
occurs when the participant's expectations produce an experimental outcome, even though the participant did not receive any manipulation
placebo effect
an innocuous, inert substance that has no effect on the behavior of the participants; participants are unaware of this
placebo
a type of experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participant is aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group
double-blind experiment
can all three types of research, descriptive, correlational, and experimental, can be used to address the same research topic?
yes
the entire group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions; the larger group
population
the subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study; what is actually observed
sample
a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected
random sample
what are the advantages and disadvantages of random samples?
advantages: sample should represent the target population and eliminate sampling bias
disadvantage: it is very difficult to achieve
the observation of behavior in a real-world setting
naturalistic observation
relies on data collection from population members who are conveniently available to participate in study, based on accessibility, ease, speed, and low cost
convenience sampling
what is the advantage and disadvantage of convenience sampling?
advantage: it is a quick and easy way of choosing participants
disadvantage: it may not provide a representative sample and could be biased
a subset of a population that seeks to accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger group; reflects population factors such as age, socioeconomic status, ethnic origin, marital status, geographic location, and religion
representative sample
what are the rights of research participants (APA Guidelines)?
1. informed consent
2. confidentiality
3. debriefing
4. deception
all participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop
informed consent
researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on individuals completely confidential and, when possible, anonymous
confidentiality
after the study has been completed, the researchers should inform the participants of its purpose and the methods they used
debriefing
in some circumstances, telling the participants beforehand what the research study is about substantially alters the participants behavior and invalidates the researcher's data
deception
__________ research has benefited humans
animal
what are the standards of care in animal research? (3)
1. housing
2. feeding
3. psychological and physical well being
what are the 5 guidelines for consuming psychological information?
1. avoid overgeneralizing results
2. exercise caution in applying group trends to individual experience
3. look for converging evidence
4. question causal inferences
5. consider the source
the body's electrochemical communication circuitry
nervous system
what are the 3 characteristics of the nervous system?
1. complexity
2. integration
3. electrochemical transmission
the characteristic of the nervous system that allows you to perform or carry out a multitude of tasks all at once
complexity
brain activity is ___________ across these levels through countless interconnections of brain cells and extensive pathways that link different parts of the brain
integrated
the brain's special capacity for change
plasticity
the brain and rest of the nervous system work as an information-processing system powered by ____________ and _____________
electrical impulses; chemical messengers
when an impulse travels down a nerve cell, or neuron, it does so ___________. when an impulse gets to the end of the line, it communicates with the next neuron using __________
electrically; chemicals
as we interact with and adapt to the world, what do the brain and nervous system do?
receive and transmit sensory input, integrate the information received from the environment, and direct the body's motor activities
information flows into the brain through input from our ___________ and the brain makes sense of that information, pulling it together and giving it meaning. in turn, information moves out of the brain and to the rest of the body, directing all of the ___
senses; physical activities we do
also called sensory nerves; nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory neurons
afferent nerves
also called motor nerves; nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body
efferent nerves
most information processing occurs through ____________, which are interconnected networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output
neural networks
what are the two divisions of the nervous system?
the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system (CNS)
more than ______ of all our nerve cells are found in the central nervous system
99%
the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
what are the functions of the peripheral nervous system?
to bring information to and from the brain and spinal cord and to carry out the commands of the central nervous system to execute various muscular and glandular activities
what are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
the body system consisting of sensory nerves (afferent), whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the central nervous system about conditions such as pain and temperature and motor neurons (efferent)
somatic nervous system
function to tell muscles what to do
motor neurons
the body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion
autonomic nervous system
what are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
parasympathetic nervous system
the body's response to stressors, which are circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities
stress
the stress response begins with a ____________ reaction, and is activated by the ____________ nervous system
fight-or-flight; sympathetic
what are the two types of cells in the nervous system?
neurons and glial cells
nerve cells that handle the information-processing function
neurons
provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions in the nervous system; they keep neurons running smoothly
glial cells
are activated while we enact a behavior and when we passively observe another person performing that behavior; play a role in empathy and our understandings of others
mirror neurons
motor neurons do not respond to ___________ information, and sensory neurons do not respond to ___________ information. mirror neurons respond to _________
sensory; motor; both
what is the basic structure of a neuron?
cell body, dendrites, and an axon
the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance
cell body
tree-like fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it towards the neuron's cell body
dendrites
the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells
axon
a layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons
myelin sheath
to transmit information to other neurons, a neuron sends brief _________ impulses through its _______ to the next neuron
electrical; axon
the stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron
resting potential
the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon
action potential
an action potential only lasts about _________ of a second because the sodium channels can stay open for only a very brief time
1/1000
when a neuron sends an action potential, it is said to be ___________
firing
the action potential abides by the _______________, which states that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, called its threshold, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any of its intensity
all-or-nothing principle
tiny spaces between neurons; the gap between neurons is referred to as a synaptic gap
synapses
what are three parts of a synapse?
1. dendrites
2. axon terminal button
3. synaptic gap
before an impulse can cross the synaptic gap, it must be converted into a ___________
chemical signal
each axon branches out into numerous fibers that end in structures called ____________. stored in very tiny synaptic vesicles (sacs) within the terminal buttons are chemical substances called __________
terminal buttons; neurotransmitters
transmit, or carry, information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron
neurotransmitters
what happens when a nerve impulse reaches the terminal button?
it triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from the synaptic vesicles
a neurotransmitter, which stimulates the firing of neurons and is involved in the action of muscles, learning, and memory; found throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems
acetylcholine
a neurotransmitter found throughout the central nervous system and is believed to be the neurotransmitter in as many as 1/3 of the brain's synapses
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
an important neurotransmitter that keeps neurons from firing; it helps control the precision of the signal being carried from one neuron to the next
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
what are low levels of GABA associated with?
anxiety (anti-anxiety drugs increase the inhibiting effects of GABA)
a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in exciting many neurons to fire and is especially involved in learning and memory
glutamate
what can too much glutamate do?
too much glutamate can overstimulate the brain and trigger migraine headaches or even seizures
_________ receptors have increasingly become the targets of drug treatment for a number of neurological and psychological disorders
glutamate
a neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of neurons in the central nervous system, but it excites the heart muscle, intestines, and urogenital tract
norepinephrine
_________ stimulates the release of norepinephrine
stress
norepinephrine helps to control ___________. too little norepinephrine is associated with ____________, and too much triggers ____________, ____________ states
alertness; depression; agitated; manic
a neurotransmitter that helps to control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize rewards in the environment
dopamine
low levels of dopamine are associated with __________, in which physical movements deteriorate. high levels are associated with _____________
Parkinson's Disease; schizophrenia
a neurotransmitter that is involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning
serotonin
in regulating states of sleep and wakefulness, serotonin teams with ____________ and _____________
acetylcholine; norepinephrine
what are lowered levels of serotonin are associated with? what drug is used to slow down the reuptake of serotonin into terminal buttons? how many known types of serotonin receptors are there?
depression; Prozac; 15
natural opiates that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons; they shield the body from pain and elevated feelings of pressure
endorphins
mimics the action of endorphins by stimulating receptors in the brain involved with pleasure and pain
morphine
a hormone and neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the experience of love and social bonding; it is released in mothers who have just given birth and secreted in males
oxytocin
a drug that mimics or increases a neurotransmitter's effects
agonist
a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter's effects
antagonist
an abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain resulting from injury or disease
brain lesion
a device that records the brain's electrical activity and can be used to assess brain damage, epilepsy, and other problems
electrical recording (electroencephalograph or EEG)
an image that can reveal damage inside and outside the brain/ body; displays a 2-dimensional picture
x-ray
an imaging device that produces a 3-dimensional image obtained from x-rays of the head that are assembled into a composite image by a computer
CAT scan
what does a CAT scan provide?
information about the location and extent of damage involving stroke, language, disorder, or loss of memory
is based on metabolic changes in the brain related to activity; measures the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain and then sends this information to a computer for analysis
PET scan (positron-emission tomography)
a scan that involves creating a magnetic field around a person's body and using radio waves to construct images of the person's tissues and biochemical activities; does not portray brain function
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
allows scientists to see what is happening in the brain while it is working; exploits changes in blood oxygen that occur in association with brain activity
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
located at the skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons
hindbrain
begins where the spinal cord enters the skull; controls many vital functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and regulating our reflexes
medulla
extends from the rear of the hindbrain, just above the medulla; consists of two rounded structures that play important roles in motor coordination
cerebellum
what does damage to the cerebellum impair?
the performance of coordinated movements
a bridge in the hindbrain that connects the cerebellum and the brain stem; contains several clusters of fibers involved in sleep and arousal
pons
the stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain
brain stem
what do cells in the brain stem determine and regulate?
alertness and regulate basic survival functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure
located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears
midbrain
a diffuse collection of neurons involved in sterotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise
reticular formation
the brain's largest division and its most forward part
forebrain
a loosely connected network of structures under the cerebral cortex central to emotion, memory, and reward processing
the Limbic system
an almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals
amygdala
the structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories
hippocampus
the forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain's central core and serves as an important relay station
thalamus
large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements
Basal Ganglia
a small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities, eating, drinking, and sex, as well as emotion, stress, and reward
hypothalamus
what system does the hypothalamus help direct?
the endocrine system
the hypothalamus is sensitive to changes in the _________ and ________ input, and it responds by influencing the secretion of __________ and _________ outputs
blood; neural; hormones; neural
part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning
cerebral cortex
the outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80% of the human brain's cortex
neocortex
the wrinkled surface of the cerebral cortex; divided into two halves called hemispheres
lobes
each hemisphere of the brain is subdivided into four regions. what are the four regions?
1. occipital lobes
2. temporal lobes
3. frontal lobes
4. parietal lobes
structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli
occipital lobes
connections among various areas of the occipital lobes allow for the processing of information about such aspects of visual stimuli, as their _________, __________, and __________
color; shape; motion
structures of the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory
temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles
frontal lobes
an important part of the frontal lobes that is involved in higher cognition functions such as planning, reasoning, and self-control
prefrontal cortex
structures located at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control
parietal lobes
processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes
somatosensory cortex
located at the rear of the frontal lobes, processes information about voluntary movement
motor cortex
refers to the regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate sensory and motor function; 75% of the cerebral cortex
association cortex
what kind of functions occur in the association cortex?
the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and processing
plays an important role in speech
Broca's area
if damaged, causes problems in comprehending language
Wernicke's area
the large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides
corpus callosum
is caused by electrical brainstorms that flash uncontrollably across the corpus callosum
epilepsy
the right hemisphere receives information only from the ________ side of the body, and the left hemisphere receives information only from the _________ side of the body
left; right
this hemisphere controls the right side of the body and is mainly concerned with language, speech, and grammar
left hemisphere
this hemisphere controls the left side of the body and dominates in processing nonverbal information such as spatial perception, visual recognition, and emotion
right hemisphere
consists of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream
endocrine system
organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many bodily functions
glands
the nervous system and the endocrine system are ____________ connected. the brain's ___________ connects these two systems
intricately; hypothalamus
how is the endocrine system different from the nervous system? (2)
1. the parts of the endocrine system are not all connected in the way that the parts of the nervous system are
2. the endocrine system works more slowly than the nervous system because the chemicals released by the endocrine glands are transported through
chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body
hormones
a pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands
pituitary gland
the anterior (front) part of the pituitary gland where almost all of its hormones direct the activity of target glands elsewhere
master gland
what is the anterior pituitary gland controlled by?
the hypothalamus
glands located at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress
adrenal glands
each adrenal gland secretes ___________ and ___________
epinephrine (adrenaline); norepinephrine
helps a person get ready for an emergency by acting on smooth muscles, the heart, stomach, intestines, and sweat glands
epinephrine
epinephrine stimulates ___________ formation, which in turn, arouses the ___________ nervous system, and this system excites the ___________ glands to produce more epinephrine
reticular; sympathetic; adrenal
also alerts the individual to emergency situations by interacting with the pituitary glands and the liver
norepinephrine
norepinephrine functions as a ______________ when it is released by neurons, but in the ___________ glands, it is released as a hormone
neurotransmitter; adrenal
a dual-purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions
pancreas
the part of the pancreas that serves endocrine functions, produces a number of hormones, including insulin
islets of Langerhans
an essential hormone that controls glucose (blood sugar) levels in the body and is related to metabolism, body weight, and obesity
insulin
sex-related endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in women's sexual development and reproduction; located in the pelvis on either sides of the uterus in women
ovaries
sex-related endocrine glands in the scrotum that produce hormones involved in men's sexual development and reproduction
testes
____________ is an example of the brain's remarkable adaptability
plasticity
what are three ways that brain repair might take place?
1. collateral sprouting, in which the axons of some healthy neurons adjacent to damaged cells grow new branches
2. substitution of function, in which the damaged region's function is taken over by another area of the brain
3. neurogenesis, the process by
implants of healthy tissue into damaged brains
brain grafts
unique primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells
stem cells
the nucleus of each human cell contains ________ chromosomes
46
thread-like structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair originating from each parent, and that contain DNA
chromosomes
a complex molecule in the cell's chromosome that carries genetic information
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
the units of hereditary information, consisting of short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA
genes
what is the function of genes?
to manufacture proteins that are necessary for maintaining life
the principle that if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene; a recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive
dominant-recessive principle
describes the influences of multiple genes on behavior, such as personality and intelligence
polygenic inheritance
describes studies that focus in the interdependent process by which two or more genes influence characteristics, behavior, diseases, and development
gene-gene interaction
involves the manipulation of genes using technology to determine their effect on behavior; can be used to discover the specific locations of genes that determine an individual's susceptibility to many diseases
molecular genetics
a genetic method in which organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a particular trait they display
selective breeding
the study of the degree and nature of heredity's influence on behavior
behavior genetics
using methods such as ___________, behavior geneticists examine the extent to which individuals are shaped by their heredity and their environmental experiences
twin study
an individual's observable characteristics
phenotype
an individual's genetic heritage; his or her actual genetic material
genotype
the interaction of a specific measured variation in DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment
gene x environment (g x e) interaction
termed by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings
stream of consciousness
describes the processes by which we think about thinking; includes our awareness of the fringe elements of the conscious stream
metacognition
an individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences
consciousness
includes awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences
awareness
the physiological state of being engaged with the environment
arousal
the aspect of consciousness that is associated with the front-most part of the brain (the prefrontal cortex) as well as the anterior cingulate (an area associated with acts of will) and the association areas
awareness
the aspect of consciousness that is a physiological state determined by the reticular activating system, a network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus (frontal cortex)
arousal
individuals' understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences
theory of mind
what are the 5 levels of alertness?
1. higher-level consciousness
2. lower-level consciousness
3. altered states of consciousness
4. subconscious awareness
5. no awareness
in controlled processes, the most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal
higher-level consciousness
controlled processes require ___________ attention, the ability to concentrate on a specific aspect experience while ignoring others
selective
refers to higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving; linked to the brain's prefrontal cortex
executive function
the person's capacity to harness consciousness, to focus on specific thoughts while ignoring others
executive function
because controlled processes demand attention and effort, they are ________ than automatic processes
slower
lower-level consciousness includes both ___________ and ___________
automatic processes; daydreaming
states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities; require less conscious effort than controlled processes
automatic processes
involves a low level of conscious effort and lies between active consciousness and dreaming while asleep
daydreaming
daydreaming usually begins ___________ when we are doing something that requires less than our full attention. __________ is a type of daydreaming
spontaneously; mind wandering
mental states that are noticeably different from normal awareness; can range from losing one's sense of self-consciousness to hallucinating
altered states of consciousness
what causes altered states of consciousness?
drugs, trauma, fever, fatigue, sensory deprivation, meditation, and possibly hypnosis
subconscious awareness can take place while we are __________ or ___________
awake; asleep
refers to the subconscious processing that leads to a solution to a problem after a break from conscious thought about the problem
incubation
applies to someone who has been knocked out by a blow or anesthetized, or who has fallen into a deep, prolonged, unconscious state
unconsciousness
according to Freud, __________ thought is a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness
unconscious
___________ processes including thoughts, emotions, goals, and perceptions can occur outside of awareness
mental
a natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness
sleep
sleep must be important, because it takes up about ____________ of our lifetime, more than anything else we do
one-third
periodic physiological fluctuations in the body, such as the rise and fall of hormones and accelerated/ decelerated cycles of the brain activity, that can influence behavior
biological rhythms
daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/ wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level
circadian rhythms
body temperature fluctuates about ______ degrees Fahrenheit in a 24-hour day, peaking in the ___________ and reaching its lowest point between 2 AM and 5 AM
3; afternoon
the body monitors the change from day to night by means of _______________
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronized its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
output from the suprachiasmatic nucleus allows the ____________ to regulate daily rhythms such as temperature and hunger and the reticular formation to regulate daily rhythms of sleep and wakefulness
hypothalamus
what are the 4 theories on why we need sleep?
1. evolutionary perspective- sleep may have developed because animals need to protect themselves at night
2. sleep is a way to conserve energy
3. sleep is restorative
4. sleep in brain plasticity and enhances synaptic connections between neurons and is vi
sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds the __________ and __________, which the day's waking activities can wear out
brain; body
lack of sleep is stressful and has an impact on the _________ and _________. when deprived of sleep, people also have trouble paying attention and __________. studies have shown that sleep deprivation decreased brain activity in the ____________ and _____
body; brain; solving problems; thalamus; prefrontal cortex
sleep deprivation can influence ____________ judgment. sleep is the key to optimal _________ and __________ performance
moral; physical; mental
stages of sleep correspond to massive _______________ changes that occur throughout the brain as the fast, irregular, and low-amplitude electrical activity of wakefulness is replaced by the slow, regular, high-amplitude waves of deep sleep
electrophysiological
a device that monitors the brain's electrical activity
electroencephalography (EEG)
when people are awake, their EEG patterns exhibit two types of waves: __________ and __________
beta; alpha
reflect concentration and alertness; they are highest in frequency and lowest in amplitude
beta waves
beta waves are _____________, meaning that they do not form a very consistent pattern, which makes sense given the extensive variation in sensory input and activities we experience when we are awake
desynchronous
when we are relaxed but still awake, our brain waves slow down, increase in amplitude, and become more synchronous or regular; the waves associated with relaxation or drowsiness
alpha waves
the stage of sleep that is characterized by drowsy sleep
stage 1
the stage of sleep in which muscle activity decreases and the person is no longer consciously aware of the environment
stage 2
in sleep stage 2, _________ waves continue, but are interspersed with sleep ___________, which involve a sudden increase in wave frequency
theta; spindles
stages 1 and 2 are light stages of sleep, and if people awaken during one of these stages, they often report ________________
not have been asleep at all
the stages of sleep that are characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves during sleep; often referred to as delta sleep and is our deepest sleep
stages 3 and 4
typically, sleep stage _______ is characterized by delta waves occurring less than 50% of the time and stage _______ delta waves occur more than 50% of the time
3; 4
an active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs
REM sleep
sleep stages 1-4 are referred to as ____________
non-REM sleep
is characterized by a lack of rapid eye movement and little dreaming
non-REM sleep
during a normal night of sleep, individuals will spend about _______ of sleep in light sleep (stages 1 and 2), ______ in delta or deep sleep, and _______ in REM sleep
60%; 20%; 20%
what are the three important neurotransmitters involved in sleep?
serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine
as sleep begins, the levels of neurotransmitters sent to the forebrain from the reticular formation _____________, and they continue to ________ until they reach their lowest levels during the ___________ sleep stage
start dropping; fall; deepest (stage 4)
REM sleep is initiated by a rise in _____________, which activates the cerebral cortex while the rest of the brain remains relatively inactive. REM sleep ends when there is a rise in ___________ and ___________, which increases the level of forebrain acti
acetylcholine; serotonin; norepinephrine
what sleep inducing hormone may effect sleep/ wake habits as people get older?
melatonin
sleep plays a role in a large number of health problems, diseases, and disorders. _________ and _________ attacks are more common during the night and in the early morning. sleeplessness is also associated with ___________ and ______________
stroke; asthma; obesity; heart disease
the inability to sleep; can involve a problem in falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking up too early
insomnia
for short-term insomnia, physicians prescribe _____________. mild insomnia can be reduced by practicing good ____________. ____________ changes can also help insomniacs increase their sleep time and awaken less frequently in the night
sleeping pills; sleeping habits; behavioral
occurs during the deepest stages of sleep (stage 3 or 4), usually early in the night, when a person is unlikely to be dreaming
somnambulism (sleep walking)
there is nothing __________ about sleepwalking and it is safe to _____________ sleepwalkers
abnormal; awaken
a side effect of Ambien, a prescribed sleep medication for insomnia, that invovles preparing and consuming food while still asleep
sleep eating
a frightening dream that awakens a dreamer from REM sleep; content involves danger
nightmare
increases in nightmares or worsening nightmares are often associated with an increase in _____________
life stressors
features sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear; often accompanied by a number of physiological reactions, such as rapid heart rate and breathing, loud screams, heavy perspiration, and movement; less common than nightmares and occur during slow-wave n
night terror
involves the sudden, overpowering urge to sleep
narcolepsy
narcoleptics immediately enter __________ sleep rather than processing through the first four sleep stages
REM
narcolepsy can be triggered by extreme _____________. this disorder appears to involve problems with the ____________ and ___________ of the brain
emotional reactions; hypothalamus; amygdala
a sleep disorder in which individuals stop breathing because the windpipe fails to open or because brain processes involved in respiration fail to work properly
sleep apnea
what is a common sign of sleep apnea? if left untreated, what can this disorder cause?
loud snoring punctuated by silence; it can cause high blood pressure, stroke, and sexual dysfunction
what did Freud believe about dreams (even nightmares)?
that they symbolize unconscious wishes and that analysis of dream symbols could uncover our hidden desires; also there are two aspects of a dream, manifest content and latent content
the dream's surface content, which contains dream symbols that disguise the dream's true meaning
manifest content
a dream's hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning
latent content
the theory proposing that one can understand dreaming by applying the same cognition concepts used in studying the waking mind; the idea that dreams are essentially subconscious cognitive processing
cognitive theory of dreaming
dreaming involves _____________ and ____________, which is similar to thinking in waking life
information processing; memory
unusual aspects of dreams can be understood as related to a person's ____________ while awake
preoccupations
a collection of neurons that are active during mind wandering and day dreaming
default network
the theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain; dreams result from the brain's attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep
activation-synthesis theory
drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change moods
psychoactive drugs
continued use of psychoactive drugs leads to ___________, the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect
tolerance
continuing the drug use can also result in _____________, the physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such as physical pain and a craving for the drug when it is discontinued
physical dependence
the strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and reduction of stress
psychological dependence
a physical or psychological dependence, or both, on a drug; means that a person's body requires a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms
addiction
psychoactive drugs may increase ___________ levels in the brain's reward pathways. these pathways are located in the ____________ area and _____________
dopamine; ventral tegmental; nucleus accumbens
only the __________ and ___________ areas of the brain are directly activated by dopamine, which comes from the ventral tegmental
limbic; prefrontal
the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a vital role in the experiences of ____________
rewards
psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity; includes alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opiates
depressants
a powerful drug that acts on the body primarily as a depressant and slows down the brain's activity
alcohol
the effects of alcohol vary from person to person. what are the factors in this variation?
body weight, amount of alcohol consumed, individual differences in the way the body metabolizes alcohol, and the presence or absence of tolerance
having five or more drinks in a row in the last two weeks
binge drinking
*by high school seniors, binge drinking has decline from 41% to 26%
a disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive, and excessive use of alcoholic beverages that impairs the drinker's health and social relationships
alcoholism
studies have shown that a high frequency of alcoholism is found in the close ______________ of alcoholics. this could be due to the fact that the brains of people genetically predisposed to alcohol may be unable to produce adequate ____________
biological relatives; dopamine
recovery from alcohol was predicted by four things. what are those four things?
1. having a strong negative experience with drinking (medical emergency)
2. finding a substitute dependency (meditation, exercise, overeating)
3. developing new, positive relationships
4. joining a support group like Alcoholics Anonymous
depressant drugs that decrease central nervous system activity; include nembutal and seconal
barbiturates
heavy doses of barbiturates can impair _________ and __________. when combined with alcohol, it can be _______. abrupt withdrawal can cause _________
memory; decision making; lethal; seizures
depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation; includes valium and xanax
tranquilizers
small doses of tranquilizers induce a feeling of __________. higher doses can lead to __________ and __________. when stopped, it can produce ___________ symptoms
calm; drowsiness; confusion; withdrawal
narcotics; consist of opium and derivatives; narcotic drugs that depress activity in the central nervous system and eliminate pain
opiates
what are the most common opiate drugs that affect synapses in the brain that use endorphins as their neurotransmitter?
morphine and heroin
psychoactive drugs that increase the central nervous system's activity; include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine
stimulants
the world's most widely used psychoactive drug; is a stimulant and a natural component of the plants that are the sources of coffee, tea, and cola drinks
caffeine
the main psychoactive ingredient in all forms of smoking and smokeless tobacco; stimulates the brain's reward venters by raising dopamine levels
nicotine
behavioral effects of nicotine include improved ____________ and ___________, reduced __________ and ___________, and __________ relief
attention; alertness; anger; anxiety; pain
uppers," are stimulant drugs that people use to boost energy, stay awake, or lose weight; increases the release of dopamine, which enhances the user's activity level and pleasurable feelings
amphetamines
a synthetic stimulant that causes a powerful feeling of euphoria
methamphetamine
an illegal drug that comes from the coca plant, native to Bolivia and Peru; it is either snorted or injected in the form of crystals or powder
cocaine
an illegal synthetic drug with both stimulant and hallucinogenic properties
MDMA (ecstasy)
ecstasy is sometimes referred to as an ____________, because under its influence, users tend to feel warm bonds with others
empathogen
MDMA produces its effects by releasing the neurotransmitters ___________, ___________, and ___________
serotonin; dopamine; norepinephrine
MDMA depletes the brain of ____________ producing lingering feelings of listlessness that often continue for days after use. it impairs ___________ and __________ and destroys __________ that release serotonin. repeated use might lead to susceptibility to
serotonin; memory; cognitive processing; axons; depression
psychoactive drugs that modify a person's perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real; also called psychedelic (mind revealing); include marijuana and LSD
hallucinogens
the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant cannabis sativa; has minor hallucinogenic effects
marijuana
THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the active substance in marijuana, does not affect a specific neurotransmitter, but rather disrupts the membranes of ___________ and affects the functioning of a variety of ___________ and ___________
neurons; neurotransmitters; hormones
what are the physical effects of marijuana? how about the psychological effects?
physical: increased pulse rate and blood pressure, reddening of the eyes, coughing, and dry mouth
psychological: a mixture of excitatory, depressive, and mildly hallucinatory characteristics
when used in large amounts, marijuana can alter ___________ and change ___________ cycles
sperm count; hormonal
a hallucinogen that, even in low doses, produces striking perceptual changes; produces images that are pleasurable and grotesque (objects change shape and glow)
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
LSD can trigger extreme ___________, paranoia, and ____________ or ___________ impulses
anxiety; suicidal; homicidal
what are the effects LSD has on the body? how about the emotional and cognitive effects? what neurotransmitter(s) does this drug act on?
body: dizziness, nausea, and tremors
emotional and cognitive: rapid mood swings and impaired attention and memory
mainly serotonin, though it can act on dopamine
an altered state of consciousness or psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions
hypnosis
when monitored by an EEG, hypnotized individuals display __________ and __________ waves characteristic of persons in a relaxed waking state
alpha; beta
what part of the brain is activated during hypnosis?
the cerebral cortex (occipital lobes, parietal lobes, sensorimotor cortex, and prefrontal cortex)
what are the 4 steps the hypnotist does in hypnosis?
1. minimizes distractions and makes the person to be hypnotized comfortable
2. tells the person to concentrate on something specific, such an imaged scene or the ticking of a watch
3. informs the person what to expect in the hypnotic state, such as relaxa
proposed by Ernest Hilgard; hypnosis involves a special state of consciousness in which consciousness is split into separate components: one follows the hypnotist's commands, while another component acts as a "hidden observer
divided state of consciousness
the perspective that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should behave
social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis
hypnosis has been used to treat alcoholism, somnambulism, depression, suicidal tendencies, post-traumatic stress disorder, migraines, overeating, diabetes, and smoking. when is hypnosis the most effective?
when it is combined with psychotherapy
the attainment of a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry; the mediator is mindfully present to his or her thoughts and feelings but is not consumed by them
meditation
a characteristic of meditation that means bringing one's awareness to one's inner life and attending to one's thoughts; being psychologically present as one thinks
focused attention
a characteristic of meditation that refers to the capacity to observe one's thoughts as they happen without getting preoccupied by them
open monitoring
a technique practiced by yoga enthusiasts and Buddhist monks
mindfulness meditation
the goal of this is the development of loving acceptance of oneself and others; it demonstrates how activity inside the human mind may have important positive implications for social behavior
lovingkindness meditation
at the physiological state, meditation shows qualities of ___________ and ____________ yet is distinct from both
sleep; wakefulness
an overwhelming feeling of wellness right before you fall asleep, the sense that everything is going to work out
hypnagogic reverie