Two modes of thinking
Focused and Diffuse
Focused thinking
Specific and task/goal oriented thinking; Often from established neural connections and involves a thing your familiar with; direct approach to solving problems using rational, sequential, analytical approaches; affiliated with prefrontal cortex
Diffuse thinking
Non-specific and broad thinking; often used when making new neural connections or trying to solve and figure out something new; representative of the brain's many neural resting states; allows us to suddenly gain a new insight on a problem; not affiliated
What is Procrastination?
When you look at something that you don't want to do, you activate brain regions associated with pain within the insular cortex. Your brain looks for a way to stop the negative stimulation by switching your attention to something else.
Pomodoro technique
Developed by Francesco Cirillo in the late 1980s; use timer and focus heavily on task for about 25 minutes followed by around 5 minutes of reward or relaxation; simply work intently on whatever you've chosen to work on. Trying to finish a task is NOT the
Learning all at once vs a little everyday
all at once doesn't allow your mind to build a steady foundation knowledge. Everyday gives your mind time to build this foundation. The key is repetition.
Two major types of memory
Long term and working memory
Working memory
has to do with what you are immediately and consciously processing in your mind; Based in prefrontal cortex; Holds about 4 "chunks" of information; requires "energy" input to prevent dissipation by metabolic brain function
Long term memory
Memory storage with billions of items; Need to revisit these items a few times to strengthen the connections and be able to find them again later
Why is repetition important?
Repetition is important so your metabolic processes don't do away with your synaptic connections so that you can recall memories
Spaced repetition
repetition over several days or weeks is much more effective than repetition in an evening; repeat an idea over several days to soldify it in long term memory
Why is sleep important?
Being awake creates toxic products; Sleep creates space between braincells so these toxins can be removed by the glymphatic fluids
To little sleep can cause...
Headaches, depression, heart disease, diabetes, and shorter life expectancy
During sleep what happens to memories?
Erases less important parts of memories and strengthens the ones that are important. The brain rehearses tougher ideas your trying to learn.
Going over material before sleep
Increases chances that you will dream about it; dreaming about what your studying can consolidate memories into chunks that are easier to grasp; also setting it in your mind that you want to dream about it increases the chances that you will
You learn better by...
active engagement (such as asking questions) rather than passive listening; interactions and dynamic environment; staying fit with exercise
What is a good way to overcome learning barriers if stand stills in thinking
Look at things "with new eye" or from a new perspective
a good strategy for access diffuse thinking or a neural resting state...
is to hold something in your hand and doze off...when you start to fall asleep and enter diffuse mode your awoken by it falling out of your hand and you can retain these ideas
For better reading comprehension, know...
what you're trying to get out of a text before you read it (FOCUS)
For better reading comprehension, concentrate on...
the meaning of the words and sentences and think about the overall picture, make connections to your current knowledge; pre-skim material to get a sense of the big picture; after you read the material pause and recall the material and review it.
five learning strategies
1. Practice testing
2. Interleaved practice (different subjects and topics mixed strategically)
3. Elaborative interrogation (always ask why something is true)
4. Summarize information
5. use keywords and mental imagery
Rereading is...
not particularly helpful or efficient because it is not engaging and your eyes can gloss over during second read.
For note-taking...
put in your own words;
Cornell Note Strat
1. Jot down notes using personal short hand
2. review and clarify notes as soon as possible and pull out main ideas
3. summarize the main ideas
4. study notes. spend most time on main ideas and summary
Note-taking styles can be broadly classified into two categories
linear and nonlinear
styles.
Linear styles
format similar to conventional written texts
or outlining
non-linear styles
use graphical representations (e.g., the mapping
method) allow students to organize the content of their notes in a systematic way
notetaking tips
-Take generative notes (in your own words)
-Review early and often-Test yourself
walking helps...
boost creativity by enabling better diffuse thinking; promote new connections between brain cells, stave off the usual withering of brain tissue, increases the volume of the hippocampus, and elevates levels of molecules that grow new neurons and transmit
two dominant modes of attention
The task-positive network is active when you're actively engaged in a task and focused on it (the central executive); The task-negative network is active when your mind is wandering in daydreaming mode
third component of attention
attention filter helps to orient our attention, to tell us what to pay attention to and what we can safely ignore; thought to be found in the insula and is known as the attention switch
How is creativity related to personality
of the five major personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness and neuroticism), creativity is associated with agreeableness and non-openness (skepticism)
Writing tip for being more efficiently creative
try not to edit while you write; editing is involves the focused mind while writing should involve more of the diffuse or creative mode of thinking
the Einstellung effect
In this phenomenon, an idea you already have in mind, or your simple initial thought, prevents a better idea or solution from being found; Beware aware of this pit trap so you can use diffuse thinking to maneuver around it; Einstellung is german for minds
How to activate diffuse mode of thinking...
do something else until your brain is consciously free of any thought of the problem-listen to music, take a walk, clean your gerbil cage.
To be efficient with diffuse thinking...
switch your focus to other things you need to do to capitalize on the downtime
creativity is...
the ability to pull from memory something that was never put there in the first place
distributed practice (is important rather than exclusively one or the other learning/thinking styles)
back and forth learning between focused-mode attention and diffuse-mode relaxation
General Diffuse-Mode activators
-Gym, sport, jog, walk, swim
-dance, draw, paint, play or listen to music
-go for a drive, take a bath/shower, meditate/pray,
-sleep
-read a relaxing book (this requires more focus than above tasks)
according to studies, blinking...
is a vital activity that provides means of reevaluating a situation to prevent the Einstellung effect
closing your eyes can...
help you focus on something by avoiding distractions;
learning a new concept almost always requires...
one or more periods when you aren't consciously working on the problem; allows diffuse mode to deliver new ideas and patterns give you fresh perspectives that boost learning
Rule of thumb for taking diffuse-breaks from a subject
when you are first learning new concepts, is not to let things go untouched for longer than a day.
when you become frustrated at something...
take a break from it and enable diffuse thinking; frustration can block out key areas of the brain
don't underestimate the power of asking others...
but always wrestle with a question yourself before asking because it can embed the basic concepts of the problem more deeply and make you more receptive to the answer
paradoxes of learning
strong focus is important but can block the fresh perspectives we need to learn; success is important but critically, so is failure
writing notes before and after sleep as well as on walks...
can help you record any diffuse thinking you might have before it slips away
chunks
compact packages of information that your mind can easily access.
value of chunking
when you first look at a brand new concept, it often doesn't make much sense; chunking is the mental leap that helps unite bits of information together through meaning and makes the information easier to remember and fit into the larger context of what yo
focused mode of thinking (is used for connecting what)
Being able to connect different ideas to creak chunks involves the...
interwoven chunks of ideas leads to...
expertise in a field of study or skill
what helps create chunks
focus, practice, and repition-the creation of strong memory traces
the best chunks are the ones...
that are so well ingrained that you don't even have to consciously think about connecting the neural pattern together; that is the point of making ideas, movements, or reactions into a single chunk
when studying math/science problems...
don't focus only on why an individual step works but on the connection between steps
the best chunks are the ones...
...
Chunking is useful for learning...
both mental ideas and physical motions
First step of chunking is...
To focus your undivided attention on the information you want to chunk.
Focus when chunking is important because...
when you first begin to learn something your forming new neural patterns spread throughout the brain; if your attention is divided your not able to form as complex and larger scale patterns; it also helps actively tie different ideas in your brain togethe
The second step of chunking is to...
understand the basic idea your trying to learn/chunk; this helps the concepts to fit in and relate to other material in your brain
understanding how a problem was solved (going through motions mentally)...
may give you an "aha" moment but does not necessarily mean you have learned the material or have a solid grasp on it so you can recall it later; doing it yourself helps give you this solid grasp
The third step of chunking is...
gaining context so you can see not just how but also when to use this chunk
creating context when learning is...
going beyond the initial problem and seeing more broadly; repeating and practicing both related and unrelated problems so you can see both when to use and when not to use the chunk
learning occurs in two ways...
top down (big picture) learning and bottom up (chunking) learning
top down learning...
allows you to see and understand what your learning and where it fits in
bottom up learning...
is when practice and repetition can help you both build and strengthen each chunk so you can easily access it whenever you need to
context learning is where...
bottom up and top down learning meet
chunking involves how to learn a technique while...
context means learning when to use it
you can do top down learning by
Glancing through headings or listening to a lecture or explanation
Good technique for internalizing information you read (better than re-reading)
recalling-look away from material and try to recall the topics and ideas in your mind
rereading is only beneficial..
when used with spaced repetition
chunking helps to free space...
in your working memory as it forms a more natural and even subconscious grasp of the concepts
one of the most common illusions of competence in learning is...
glancing at a solution and understanding it and thinking you have a solid grasp on it; you must have the solution persisting in you memory to grasp it well
testing yourself (e.g. with flashcards) helps...
to avoid the illusion of competence and lets you know what you know or don't know
recalling material outside...
of your usual place of study helps you strengthen your grasp of the material; helps your thinking independent of the cues from your environment.
metaphor and analogy...
can help when trying to learn something new
rereading and overdoing highlighting can...
create the illusion of competence
most of the neurons in your cerebral cortex...
carry information about what is happening around you and what you're doing
your brain has a set of diffusely projecting systems of...
neuromodulators that carry information not about the content of an experience but its importance and value to your future
neuromodulators are...
chemicals that influence how a neuron responds to other neurons; acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin are three
acetylcholine forms...
neuromodulatory connections that are particularly important for focused learning; it causes neurons to project widely and increase synaptic plasticity leading to new long term memory
dopamine controls...
motivation and is found in a small set of neurons in the brainstem; these neurons are part of a larger system in the basal ganglia that control reward learning; dopamine is released to theses neurons when we receive an unexpected reward
loss of dopamine neurons can lead to...
anhedonia which is a loss of interest in things that once gave you pleasure
severe loss of dopamine neurons can cause...
resting tremor or Parkinson's disease. Ultimately can lead to catatonia (complete loss of any movement)
serotonin strongly...
affects social life; in monkey troops, alpha male has highest levels of serotonin and the lowest ranking ones have the lowest levels; Prozac raises level of serotonin activity;
serotonin is also...
closely linked to risk taking behavior; with higher risk in lower serotonin monkeys; inmates for violent crimes have some of the lowest levels of serotonin in society
emotions are intertwined with...
perception and attention and interact with learning an memory; the amygdala a pair of almond shaped structures at the base of the brain is one of the major centers where cognition and emotions are integrated
the amygdala along with the hippocampus...
are a part of the limbic system which is involved in processing memory and decision making as well as regulating emotional reactions
keeping your amygdala "happy" (ENTHUSIASM)...
can help you be an effective learner
emotions are slower...
than perceptions and actions but no less important for successful learning
combining chunks in new ways...
underlies much of the innovation that has taken place; long brainstorm meetings (e.g. week long) can help you make the diffuse connections between chunks while not allowing any ideas to fade from memory
the more reinforced chunks are in your mind...
the easier it is for you to make new diffuse connections between chunks that lead to innovation
chunking can also enable transfer which is...
the ability to relate chunks from one topic/discipline to a chunk from another topic/discipline through similarities
if you have a large reinforced library of chunks...
you can more easily skip to the right solution by "listening to whispers from your diffuse mode
when you are learning chunks your training your brain not only...
to remember a specific concept but classes of concepts that you can automatically be familiar with
Two ways to figure something out or solve problems...
1. sequential step by step reasoning
2. holistic intuition
sequential thinking
each small step leads towards a solution and involves the focused mode
holistic thinking
requires creative diffuse mode linking of several seemingly different focused mode thoughts
diffuse mode's semi random connections means that...
solutions it provides should be verified using focused mode; intuition is not always right
Law of serendipity
lady luck favors the one who tries; fortune favors the bold
overlearning
continuing to practice when you've mastered what you can in a study session;
overlearning can be helpful in...
achieving automaticity in doing a task or recalling some information, but research has shown that repetitive overlearning in a single session can be a waste of learning time.
deliberate practice
rather than relearning things you already know well, focus your learning attention on more difficult things you don't know very well
A good way to learn how to select and use different chunks is...
interleaving- jumping back and forth between problems/situations that require different techniques or strategies; once you have a chunk reinforced in your memory you can start interleaving your practice
interleaving comes after the practice/repetition approach and...
allows to learn more creatively and independently; helps learn when and why to use chunks (as opposed to repetition which only gives you a grasp on the chunks themselves); helps to make connections between chunks of different fields;
Thomas Khun discovered that...
most paradigm shifts in science are brought about by either young people or people who were originally trained in a different discipline (those more likely not to be trapped by Einstellung)
learning in multiple disciplines...
can help you bring fresh new ideas but can also lessen your grasp on both disciplines (unless...)
mistakes are OK when learning and allow...
you to improve and catch illusions of competence
chunking involves...
making information more compact in your mind so it can be drawn from more easily
30 second habit for focusing your everyday learning
Immediately after every lecture, meeting, or any significant experience, take 30 seconds-no more, no less- to write down the most important points. This helps you focus your learning from the event.
anxiety can diminish your...
ability to notice the unexpected
don't overuse your focus mode in life...
or things will go unnoticed in your surroundings.
lucky people...
are skilled at creating and noticing chance opportunities, make lucky decisions by listening to their intuition, create self-fulfilling prophesies via positive expectations, and adopt a resilient attitude that transforms bad luck into good.
how to increase luck
1.) follow your intuition-often your subconscious can give you more acute senses.
2.) Don't get bogged down in routine-variation can open up opportunities and exercise your mind.
3.) See the positive in your misfortunes-stay optimistic and positive.
two distinct systems of attention
controlled attention generated by conscious effort; and stimulus-driven attention which kicks in when someone shatters a glass behind you
George A. Miller's informational bottle...
describes a constraint on human cognition which is restricted to about 7 units (or 4 units-more modern opinion) also known as working memory;
Two ways to manage the informational bottleneck
1. to create "chunks" of information that flow naturally in your mind and don't require working memory.
2. manage attention so that unwanted stimuli does not crowd working memory.
globus pallidus
seems to be highly active when people successfully fend off distraction
Variability in working-memory capacity accounts for
about half the variability in novel reasoning and reading comprehension.
explicit memory
declarative; memory of facts and events that can be consciously recalled or "declared
implicit memory
procedural; unconscious memory of skills and how to do things
information encoded in declarative is more...
flexible; people are more likely to be able to draw analogies and extrapolate from it since it is conscious information; multitasking can hinder the learning of explicit information
basic tenets of good teaching
is that you have to start where the students are. And once you find out where they are, a good teacher can lead them almost anywhere.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
a cognitive bias in which low-ability individuals suffer from illusory superiority, mistakenly assessing their ability as much higher than it really is. Attributed to Psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger.
The Johari window
a technique used to help people better understand their relationship with themselves and others, which was created by psychologists Joseph Luft (1916-2014) and Harrington Ingham (1916-1995) in 1955.
Room 1 is the part of ourselves that we see and others s
Types of knowns
There are things we know we know; Things we know we don't know; and then there are unknown unknowns; known knowns are the things in our field of vision, known unknowns are the things outside of our field of vision that we are aware of, unknown unknowns ar
Types of knowns (Q&A)
There are questions that are known with answers that are unknown (known unknowns); Then there are questions that are unknown with answers that are unknown (unknown unknowns); First determine the question, then discover the answer
caudate nucleus
associated with motor processes due to its role in Parkinson's disease; it plays important roles in various other nonmotor functions as well, including procedural learning, associative learning, and inhibitory control of action, among other functions.
Learning curve
A learning curve is a graphical representation of the increase of learning (vertical axis) with experience (horizontal axis); first described by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885; Learning does not happen all at once, but it builds upon and is shaped by previous
Pedagogy
the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education
Types of learning
-non-associative: sensitization, habituation
-associative learning: classical conditioning, operative conditioning
-active learning
-play
-Rote learning
-meaningful learning
-enculturation
-episodic learning
-informal, formal, nonformal
-
Non-associative learning
a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus
Non-associative learning types
1. Sensitization-You are experiencing an increased response to a repeated stimulus (you become sensitive to the stimuli)
2. Habituation-the strength or probability of a response diminishes when the response is repeated (you become immune to the stimuli or
Active learning
Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an
Associative learning
the process by which someone learns an association between two stimuli, or a behavior and a stimulus.
Associative learning types
1. Classical conditioning: a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented, together with a reflex eliciting stimuli, until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own.
2. Operant conditioning a certain behavior is either reinforce
Play
generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play wit
Enculturation
the process of learning the accepted norms and values of the surrounding culture or society, becoming an accepted member and fulfilling the needed functions and roles of the group, and establishing a context of boundaries and accepted behavior that dictat
Episodic learning
is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.
Rote learning
memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition
Meaningful learning
the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge.
Informal learning
occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations
Formal learning
takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system. Deliberate, structured, guided learning.
Fast learning
...
Slow learning
...
13 Internal factors that affect learning
1. Goals or purposes
2. Motivational behavior
3. Interest
4. Attention
5. Drill or practice
6. Fatigue
7. Aptitude
8. Attitude:
9. Emotional conditions
10. Speed, Accuracy and retention
11. Learning activities:
12. Testing
13. Guidance
Animals gain knowledge in two ways
1. learning�in which an animal gathers information about its environment and uses this information. 2.The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited which can be adjusted through evolution
In learning a new motor task, there appear to be two processes happening at once
One is the learning of the motor commands in the task, and the other is critiquing the learning, much the way a 'coach' behaves; memories of errors contribute to learning. "I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work"-Thomas Edison
Multitasking...
reduces your efficiency and performance because your brain can only focus on one thing at a time.
Doodling...
Can help people stay focused, grasp new concepts, and retain information.
obsession breeds...
creativity. IQ plays a smaller role.
You should space your study sessions so that...
the information you learned in the first session remains just barely retrievable. Then, the more you have to work to pull it from the soup of your mind, the more this second study session will reinforce your learning.
Take notes after class...
rather than just during so you can recall the information you learned. First recall should be soon after material is learned because it is less secure in your brain
In 2003, one of the first studies to examine interleaving outside of sports...
found that using it to train medical students produced more accurate electrocardiogram diagnoses than blocking
learners should have some familiarity with subject materials before interleaving...
begins (or, the materials should be quickly or easily understood). Otherwise, as appears to be the case for foreign languages, interleaving can sometimes be more confusing than helpful.
The interleaving effect is...
long-term�lasting on the order of months�and the advantage over blocking actually increases with the passage of time (in other words, there's less forgetting)
Benefit 1 of interleaving
it improves the brain's ability to tell apart, or discriminate, between concepts. Each practice attempt is different from the last, so rote responses don't work. Instead, your brain must continuously focus on searching for different solutions. That proces
Benefit 2 of interleaving
interleaving strengthens memory associations. With blocking, a single strategy, temporarily held in short-term memory, is sufficient. That's not the case with interleaving�the correct solution changes from one practice attempt to the next. As a result, yo