A ______________ is a Specialized cell directly involved in mental processes and behavior
Neuron
Neurogensis occurs in the __________ and __________ areas of the brain.
hippocampus, caudate nucleus
Structure of the neuron: Three distinct components of neurons
1. Axons
2. Dendrites
3. Soma
Structure of the neuron: the __________ is a system of membranes that prepare neurotransmitters and other substances for secretion.
Golgi complex
Structure of the neuron: the __________________________ ________________ consists of channels that transport proteins to other locations in the cell and in addition to free floaters, is the location where many _____________ are embedded.
endoplasmic reticulum; ribosomes
Structure of the neuron: _______________ are sties at which the cell synthesizes new protein molecules.
ribosomes
Structure of the neuron: _______________ are sites at which a cell performs metabolic activties.
Mitochondria
Structure of the neuron: Structure within the _____________________ includes the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and Golgi complex
soma
In its resting state, the inside of the cell is _____________ charged relative to the outside of the cell
Negatively
When dendrites receive sufficient stimulation, sodium channels in membrane open which allows positively charged sodium ions to enter the cell, this causes a state of ___________________ in neurons.
depolarization
Communication between/within neurons: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Action potential
Depolarization is followed by __________________, in which ___________ channels close and ______________ channels open,
Repolarization; sodium; potassium
Communication between/within neurons: Whenever the stimulation received by a neuron exceeds a given threshold, the resulting action potential reaches the axon terminal
all-or-none principle
Transmission of info from one nerve cell to another, involving the release of a neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
Synaptic transmission
Chemical substances that transmit signals form one neuron to another
Neurotransmitters
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. Involved in REM sleep, regulation of sleep cycle.
Acetylcholine
Two types of receptors on which Acetylcholine acts
1. Muscarinic- causes muscles to contract
2. Nicotinic- enhances memory and alertness
Difficiencies in ACh (Acetylcholine) is linked to diseases/conditions such as:
Alzheimer's, Mysathenia gravis (autoimmune dx that attacks ACh receptors at neuromuscular junctions, profound weakness at skeletal muscles)
Alzheimer's is linked specifically to deficits in the functioning of which neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter Involved in regulation of movement, personality, mood, memory, and sleep
Dopamine
Holds that ____________________ is due to elevated dopamine levels or oversensitivity of dopamine receptors
schizophrenia
Oversensitivity to or excessive dopamine in caudate nucleus contributes to ______________.
Tourette's disorder
Degeneration of Dopamine receptors in substantia nigra and nearby areas underlies tremors, muscle rigidity, and other motor symptoms of _______________________.
Parkinson's Disease
Elevated levels of _______________ in the mesolimbic system areas in the midbrain and limbic system have been implicated in the reinforcing actions of addictive drugs and alcohol.
dopamine
This neurotransmitter Plays important role in mood, attention, dreaming, learning, and certain autonomic functions
Norepinephrine
With regard to mood, the catecholamine hypothesis of depression Predicts that some forms of depression are due to lower-than-normal levels of this neurotransmitter, which is a form of ____________________.
Norepinephrine
5-HT is another word for _________________ neurotransmitter.
Serotonin
This neurotransmitter Exerts inhibitory effect and has been implicated in mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, and migraine headache
Serotonin
Elevates levels of serotonin contribute to which clinical factors/disorders (3)?
1. Schizophrenia
2. Autism
3. Food restriction associated with Anorexia Nervosa
Low levels of Serotonin play a role in which clinical factors/disorders (5)?
1. Aggression
2. Depresison
3. Suicide
4. Bulimia nervosa
5. OCD
Social phobia has been attributued to abnormalities of levels in which two neurotransmitters?
serotonin and dopamine
Inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays a role in eating, seizure, anxiety disorder, motor control, vision, and sleep
GABA
Low levels of GABA have been linked to ______________
Anxiety disorders
High levels of GABA have been linked to ______________
...
Benzos and other CNS depressants work to reduce anxiety by enhancing the effects of which neurotransmitter?
GABA
What neurotransmitter is associated linked to motor systems degeneration of cells in the basal ganglia that are seen in Huntington's Disease
GABA
Excitatory neurotransmitter that plays a role in learning and memory, specifically playing a role in long-term potentiation (a brain mechanism that is responsible for formation of long-term memories)
Glutamate
Excessive ____________ activity can lead to seizures and stroke-related brain damage, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's, and other neurodegenerative disorders.
Glutamate
Excessive glutamate activity is referred to as ______.
excitotoxicity
Inhibitory neuromodulators or "endogenous morphines" that lower the sensitivity of postsynaptic neurons to neurotransmitters; have analgesic properties, implicated in pleasurable experiences and relief from things such as acupuncture, runner's high, and s
Endorphins
Two main parts of the Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
Made up of bundles of myleinated axons; Carries information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of body, controls simple reflexes that don't involve the brain
Spinal cord
List the 5 groups of spinal cord segments (31 total segments), from top to bottom
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
Afferent (inward, toward) nerve fibers in spinal cord: location and type of message carried
1. Located in the superior portion of the spinal cord, the dorsal horns
2. Sensory messages
ventral
front side
dorsal
back side
Efferent (outward, away from) nerve fibers in spinal cord: location and type of message carried
1. Located in the inferior portion of the spinal cord, the ventral horns
2. Motor messages
Damage at the cervical level of the spinal cord results in ________________
Quadriplegia
Damage at the thoracic level of the spinal cord results in ________________
Paraplegia
Three meninges (protective membranes) of the CNS, plus additional protective factor
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid
3. Pia mater
+ CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
Ventricular abnormalities are linked to several disorders, including ____________which is caused by an obstruction of the flow of CSF that leads to build-up of fluid and enlargement of ventricles
Hydrocephalus
______________-than-normal ventricles have been found in some individuals with schizophrenia
Larger
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body, specifically to sensory organs, muscles, and glands.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Bundles of axons are called
nerves
PNS consists of ____ (#) pairs of cranial nerves that connect to the brain and ________sets of sensory and motor nerves (spinal nerves) that conenct with spinal cord.
12; 31
Two subsystems of the Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
Governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary; comprised of sensory nerves carrying info from sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves carrying info from CNS to skeletal muscles
Somatic nervous system
This subsystem of the PNS Governs activities that are involuntary; comprised of sensory nerves conveying signals from receptors in the viscera (internal organs) to the CNS and motor nerves carrying signals from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and gl
Autonomic nervous system
Biofeedback, hypnosis, and other techniques have shown that although typically involuntary, some activities associated with the ______________ nervous system can be brought under voluntary control
Autonomic nervous system
Two branches of the autonomic nervous system
1. Sympathetic
2. Parasympathetic
This branch of autonomic nervous system is associated with arousal and expenditure of energy
Sympathetic
This branch of autonomic nervous system is Involved in conservation of energy and is active during digestion and periods of rest and relaxation
Parasympathetic
List five main stages of human brain development
1. Proliferation (embryo about 2.5 wks old)
2. Migration (8 weeks)
3 Differentiation
4. Myelination (postnatal)
5. Synaptogenesis (most postnatally)
An experience factor in synaptogensis is known as...
(variable is one whose value is determined outside the model and is imposed on the model)
exogenous
A genetic factor in synaptogensis is known as.....
(variable is a variable whose value is determined by the model)
endogenous
Human brain development: ______________ is when New cells are produced inside neural tube beginning when embryo's about 2.5 weeks old
Proliferation
Human brain development: ______________ is when Immature neurons migrate to final destination in brain beginning at about 8 weeks to aggregate with other cells to form brain structures
Migration
Human brain development: ______________ is when Neurons develop axons and dendrites
Differentiation
Human brain development: ______________ is when Axons of some neurons myelinate
Myelination
Human brain development: ______________ is when Synapses form
Synaptogenesis
Types of structural neuroimaging techniques
1. Computed tomography (CT)
2. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
during prenatal development and several years after birth, neurons are initially over-produced and undergo an active pruning process known as "fine-tuning" brain development
apoptosis
Initial diagnosis of spinal cord injury is usually detected by a spinal ___________, then ___________ (to examine soft tissues of spinal column), and if needed, computed tomography with myelogram (dye in spinal canal). Sometimes, electrodiagnostic monitor
Xray, MRI, EEG, somatosensory evoked potentials
Types of functional neuroimaging techniques
1. Positron-emission tomography (PET)
2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
When using ________, the individual is injeted with a radioactive tracer taken up by active brain cells, which produce a scan to provide info on regional blood flow, glucose metabolism, and oxygen consumpton.
PET
_______ scans are used to assess cerebrovascular disesase, Alzheimer's and other dementias, Schizophrenias, etc.
PET
In comparison to PET and SPET scans, _______ provides images that have better temporal and spatial resolution.
fMRI
Structural neuroimaging techniques provide information on the _____________ of the brain, while functional neuroimaging techniques provide information on _________________
1. Structure and function of the brain
2. Brain activity
3 Structures comprising the hindbrain
1. Medulla
2. Pons
3. Cerebellum
The brainstem contains the ___________ and ____________ structures of the hindbrain.
Medulla, Pons
Hindbrain structures: ______________ Influences flow of info between spinal cord and brain, regulates swallowing, coughing, breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure; damage is often fatal
Medulla
Hindbrain structures: ______________ connects two halves of cerebellum and plays a role in integration of movements in the right and left sides of the body
Pons
Hindbrain structures: ______________ is important for balance, posture, and coordinated and refined movement (in conjunction with basal ganglia and motor cortex)
Cerebellum
The _______________ are involved in initiation of motor acts, while the ______________ plays a critical role in the timing and coordination of those acts, and the correction of errors when performing those acts.
basal ganglia, cerebellum
Abnormalities in the ____________ have been linked to several disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, and ADHD due to its role in sensorimotor learning and some aspects of cognitive functioning.
cerebellum
Slurred speech, severe, tremors, and lass of balance resulting from damage to the cerebellum; similar to effects of alcohol
Ataxia
3 Structures of the midbrain
1. Superior and inferior colliculi
2. Substantia nigra
3. Reticular formation
Midbrain structures: __________________ Serve as routes for visual information where as the __________________ Serve as routes for auditory information
Superior colliculi; Inferior colliculi
Midbrain structures: __________________ extends from spinal cord through hindbrain and midbrain into hypothalamus in the forebrain. It includes 90 nuclei involved in respiration, coughing, vomiting, posture, locomotion, and REM sleep
Reticular formation
Part of reticular formation (midbrain) that is vital to consciousness, arousal, and wakefulness; Screens sensory input, especially during sleep, and arouses higher centers in the brain when important information must be processed
Reticular activating system
Damage to the reticular formation disrupts the _________ and can produce a permanent, ____________ state of ____________.
1. Sleep-wake cycle
2. Permanent coma-like state of sleep
4 Structures of the forebrain
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Basal Ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus)
4. Limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex)
Forebrain structures: The _____________ is involved in motor activity, language, and memory; acts as relay station and transmits all incoming sensory info (except olfaction) to appropriate areas of cortex
Thalamus
________________________ syndrome is due to thiamine deficiency that causes atrophy of neurons in certain areas of the thalamus, usually the result of chronic alcoholism. Begins with _____________________ (mental confusion, abnormal eye movements, ataxia)
1. Wernicke-Korsakoff
2. Wernicke's encephalopathy (mental confusion, abnormal eye movements, and ataxia)
3. Korsakoff's syndrome
__________________ Syndrome Involves severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia and confabulation; follows Wernicke's encephalopathy syndrome
Korsakoff's
Forebrain structures: The _____________ is one of the smallest brain structures; It monitors body's internal states and maintains homeostasis; Involved in hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, body temperature, movement, and emotional reactions;
Hypothalamus
The _____________________, located in the hypothalamus, mediates sleep-wake cycle and other circadian rhythms and is involved in seasonal affective disorder
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
The hypothalamus contains what two smaller structures?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus & mamillary bodies
Hypothalamus also contains the mammilary bodies, which are involved in ___________________ (primary function is recollective memory)
Learning and memory
Forebrain structures: The _____________ consist of 3 forebrain structures and the substantia nigra (in the midbrain) which are involved in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movement and regulating amplitude and direction of motor actions; I
Basal ganglia
Three forebrain structures of the basal ganglia
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Putamen
3. Globus pallidus
Problems related to behavioral inhibition in ADHD are linked to smaller-than-normal _____________________, ________________, and prefrontal cortex.
caudate nucleus and globus pallidus
Forebrain structures: The _____________ is Involved in memory and other cognitive functions but primarily associated with mediation of emotion
Limbic System
Structures comprising the limbic system
1. Amygdala
2. Hippocampus
3. Cingulate cortex
Limbic system (forebrain structures): ________________ Integrates, coordinates, and directs motivational and emotional activities, attaches emotions to memories, and is involved in the recall of emotionally-charged experiences (flash-bulb memories), and c
Amygdala
Pattern of behavior resulting from bilateral lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes where fear and aggression is substantially reduced, docility and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors increase, and diets are altered, hyper sexuality, and psychic bl
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Limbic system (forebrain structures): ________________ is associated with learning and memory; processes spatial, visual, and verbal info and consolidates declarative memories (converts ST to LT memories)
Hippocampus
Limbic system (forebrain structures): ________________ Involved in attention, emotion, and perception and subjective experience of pain
Cingulate cortex
Forebrain: Connects two hemispheres; allows info sent directly to one hemisphere to be available to the other hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Left hemisphere controls the right and vice-versa; visual info from each eye goes to both sides of brain is referred to as _____________ ______________ and is involved in most sensory and motor functions except olfaction
Contralateral representation
_______________ is the exception to contralateral representation as signals from each nostril goes to the respective side of the brain, rather than the opposite.
Olfaction
Hemispheric specialization in the forebrain is called _________ _____________.
Brain lateralization
Major functions of VISION in left vs right hemisphere
Left: letters, words
Right: complex geometric patterns, facial recognition
Major functions of HEARING in left vs right hemisphere
Left: Language-related sounds
Right: Music and other non-language sounds
Major functions of MEMORY in left vs right hemisphere
Left: verbal memory
Right: nonverbal memory
Major functions of LANGUAGE in left vs right hemisphere
Left: speech, reading, writing, arithmetic
Right: Emotional content of language
Major functions of SPATIAL PROCESSING in left vs right hemisphere
Left: None
Right: geometry, sense of direction
Major functions of EMOTIONS in left vs right hemisphere
Left: Positive emotions
Right: Negative emotions
Major functions of REASONING in left vs right hemisphere
Left: Analytical, logical
Right: Holistic, intuitive
Split-brain patients: When a picture of an object was projected to the patient's left visual field, the patient could pick the object out of 10 objects hidden behind screen using his _________ hand; however, the patient was unable to ____________ and was
1. Left
2. name or describe the object
3. Right
List the four lobes of the cerebral cortex
1. Frontal
2. Temporal
3. Parietal
4. Occipital
Frontal lobe: 5 comprising areas
1. Primary motor cortex
2. Supplementary motor area
3. Premotor area
4. Broca's area
5. Prefrontal cortex
Frontal lobe areas: This is Involved in the execution of movement and located on the precentral gyrus. Neurons are arranged according to the location of the muscles they control with large proportions for jaw, fingers, lips.
Primary motor cortex
Damage to the primary motor cortex can result in __________
Loss of reflexes and loss of muscle tone (flaccid hemiplegia) in areas of the body contralateral to the damage
Frontal lobe area: Involved in planning and control of movement, learning new motor sequences and mediates mental representation of movement (along with other areas/structures)
Supplementary motor cortex (SMA)
Frontal lobe area: Important of movement in response to external (sensory) stimuli
Premotor cortex
Frontal lobe area: Major motor speech area usually on the left side
Broca's area
_______________ aphasia characterized by difficulties in producing spoken and written language
Broca's aphasia
Frontal lobe area: Involved in variety of complex behaviors including emotion, memory, attention, self-awareness, and higher-order cognitive (executive) functions
Prefrontal cortex
Primary motor cortex is located on the ________________
Precentral gyrus
Premotor cortex is located _______________
Anterior to the primary motor cortex
Broca's area is located in the ______________
Inferior frontal region (usually on the left hemisphere)
Damage to the dorsolateral area of the prefrontal cortex results in __________ _______________ _______________ syndrome which results in impaired judgment, insight, planning, and organization
Dorsal convexity dysexecutive syndrome
Reduced metabolism in the prefrontal cortex is referred to as ________________ and linked to disorders such as schizophrenia, ADHD, and dementia.
hypofrontality
Damage to orbitofrontal area of the prefrontal cortex produces _____________ _____________ syndrome which involves emotional lability, distractibility, poor impulse control, impaired social insight
Orbitofrontal disinhibition syndrome
Damage to mediofrontal area of prefrontal cortex produces _______________ _______________ _______________ syndrome, or pseudodepression, including reduced spontaneity, emotional reactions, and motor behavior; often described as "bored" or lacking motivati
Mesial frontal apathetic syndrome
Parietal lobe contains the _____________ cortex
Somatosensory cortex
Somatosensory cortex is located on the ______________ in the __________ lobe
Postcentral gyrus; parietal
__________________ cortex in the parietal lobe governs Pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception, and gustation
Somatosensory
The Inability to perform skilled motor movements in absence of impaired motor functioning, resulting from parietal lobe damage is referred to as _____________.
Apraxia
Somatosensory agnosia (due to damage to parietal lobe): Inability to recognize one's own neurological symptoms or other disorder is referred to as _______________.
Anosognosia
Somatosensory agnosia (due to damage to parietal lobe): failure to recognize parts of one's own body
Asomatognosia
Damage to the left (dominate) parietal lobe can cause _________ apraxia (the inability to carry out a simple action in response to a command), ________________ apraxia (the inability to carry out a sequence of actions), or Gerstmann's syndrome.
Ideomtor apraxia; Ideational apraxia
Damage to the right (non-dominate) parietal lobe can cause ___________________ _________________, or the loss of knowledge about or interest in the left side of the body.
Contralateral neglect
Damage to the left (dominate) parietal lobe can cause _________ syndrome, or a Combination of finger agnosia, right-left confusion, agraphia, and acalculia
Gerstmann's syndrome
Temporal lobe: 2 comprising areas
Auditory cortex and Wernicke's area (usually in the left hemisphere)
The inability to interpret sensations due to brain damage is called:
agnosia
Lesions in the temporal left cortex may cause ____________ agnosia and hallucinations
auditory
Temporal lobe area: Important for comprehension of language
Wernicke's area
Lesions in Wernicke's area produce ______________ aphasia, , characterized by severe deficits in language comprehension and abnormalities in language production.
Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia
Occipital lobe contains the ____________
Visual cortex
The ____________ cortex of the __________ lobe is responsible for visual perception, recognition, and memory
Visual; occipital
While the posterior portion of the visual cortex is primarily involved in _______________ vision, the anterior portion is concerned more with ______________ vision.
1. High-resolution macular vision
2. Peripheral vision
______________ visual agnosia is where a person is unable to perceive objects despite intact visual acuity, associated to damage to the Occipital lobe
Apperceptive
______________ visual agnosia is where a person is unable to recognize an object that he's focusing on as a result of impaired memory or inability to access relevant semantic knowledge, associated to damage to the Occipital lobe
Associative
Prosopagnosia
Inability to recognize familiar faces
Simultanagnosia
Inability to see more than one thing or one aspect of an object at a time
Young-Helmholtz's ______________ theory of color vision states that there are _____________ types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (Red, blue, or green), and all other colors are produced by variations in the activit
trichromatic; three
Two theories of color vision
Young-Helmoltz's trichromatic theory
Hering's opponent-process theory
Hering's _______________ theory of color vision Postulates three types of bipolar receptors (Red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black); some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells pr
opponent-process
_______________ theory of color vision is supported by The phenomenon of negative afterimages
Opponent-process
Inherited form of color blindness is usually caused by a gene on the __________ chromosome, which means that _____________ are prone to color blindness than ______________.
X; males; females
Depth perception: 2 types of binocular cues consist of _____________ and __________ and are both responsible for depth perception of objects at relatively close distances
1. Convergence
2. Retinal disparity
Depth perception: 2 types of cues
binocular and monocular
Depth perception: _____________ Refers to the turning inward of the eyes as an object gets closer and vice versa
Convergence
Depth perception: _____________ Refers to the fact that our two eyes see objects in the world from two different views, and the closer the object, the greater the disparity between the two images
Retinal disparity
Depth perception: Monocular cues contribute to depth perception for objects at ________________
Great distances
Depth perception: types of ______________ cues include relative size of objects, overlap (interposition) of objects, linear and atmospheric perspective, motion parallax (relative movement of objects at different distances when perceiver changes positions)
monocular
Primary olfactory cortex processes and integrates ___________ signals; the orbitofrontal cortex is believed to be involved in the _______________ of odors; and the amygdala plays an important role in _____________
1. Olfactory
2. Conscious perception
3. Olfactory memory
Four types of cutaneous senses
1. Pressure
2. Warmth
3. Cold
4. Pain
The areas of skin that is innervated by the dorsal root of a given segment of the spinal cord is called ___________.
Dermatomes
Melzack's ____________ ____________ theory of pain states that Nervous system can process only a limited amount of sensory info at any one time; when too much info is being received, cells in spinal cord act as a gate that blocks some incoming pain signal
gate control
Coping strategies for pain: active vs passive
Active: exercise, physical therapy, distraction, ignoring pain
Passive: restricting social activities, resting in bed, taking meds, "wishful thinking
__________ or "joining senses" is a rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality (e.g. someone might "hear a color" or "taste a shape
Synesthesia
Psychophysical laws: the _________________ threshold is the minimum stimulus needed to produce a sensation
absolute
Psychophysical laws: the ________________ threshold is the Smallest increment in stimulus intensity needed to recognize discrepancy between two stimuli
difference
Study of the relationship between physical stimulus magnitudes and their corresponding psychological sensations
Psychophysics
Psychophysical laws: ___________ Law states that the more intense the stumulus, the greater the increase in stimulus intensity required for the increase to produce a JND (just noticeable difference); constant proportion
Weber's
Psychophysical laws: ________ law states that Physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations, or, a person's experience of a stimulus intensity increases arithmetically as the stimulus intensity increases geometric
Fechner's
Psychophysical laws: ___________________ Law states that the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power which varies depending on the specific sensation being measured (e.g
Stevens's Power
H.M.: underwent a ____________ __________ _________ lobectomy due to TBI and its resulting consequences included _________________ amenesia and _______________ amnesia for recent events, but limited to explicit and declaritive memories
1. Bilateral medial temporal lobectomy
2. Anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia for recent events
Brain mechanisms of memory: Studies have shown that certain areas in the left cerebral cortex are more active during the __________ of memories, while areas in the right cerebral cortex are more active during ______________
1. Encoding
2. Retrieval
Brain mechanisms of memory: ______________ Lobes are Involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories
Temporal
Brain mechanisms of memory: Following removal of the right temporal lobe, deficits are found primarily on _______________ memory tasks, while removal of the left temporal lobe produces impaired performance on measures of ___________ memory
1. Nonverbal
2. Verbal
Brain mechanisms of memory: __________________ Plays key role in fear conditioning and adding emotional significance to memories
Amygdala
Brain mechanisms of memory: ________________ cortex Plays central role in episodic memory and prospective memory and in constructive memory and false recognition
Prefrontal
Brain mechanisms of memory: regarding memory, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is important for _____________ memory
Working
Brain mechanisms of memory: ________________ is Involved in processing information and transferring it to the cortex
Thalamus
Brain mechanisms of memory: What three brain structures Play a role in procedural memory and implicit memory
Basal Ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex
Neural mechanisms of memory: Refers to greater responsivity of a postsynaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by a presynaptic neuron for hours, days, or even weeks after presynaptic neuron has been barraged by high-frequency stimulation; thought to m
Long-term potentiation
Neural mechanisms of memory: Long-term memory also seems to depend on enhanced_________________ synthesis during the minutes or hours following learning or training
Enhanced protein synthesis
Refers to impaired language production and/or comprehension as the result of brain damage
Aphasia
Inability to name objects
Anomia
People with __________ aphasia have trouble understanding written and spoken language and generating meaningful language
Wernicke's aphasia
Conduction (associative) aphasia is caused by damage to the ________ ____________(connections between Wernike's and Broca's areas) and results in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repitition
acute fasciculus
________________ aphasia is caused by lesions outside Broca's and Wernicke's areas that disconnect these areas from other regions of the brain
Transcortical
Transcortical motor aphasia is caused if damage only hits __________'s area and is characterized by nonfluent, effortful speech, lack of spontaneous speech, and anomia with unimpaired repetition or comprehension
Broca's area
Transcortical sensory aphasia is caused if damage only hits __________'s area and is characterized by deficits in comprehension, anomia, and fluent but meaningless speech with unimpaired repetition
Wernicke's area
___________ ____________ aphasia is when one is able to talk but have nothing to say and are unable to understand written and spoken language
Mixed transcortical aphasia
Global aphasia is Caused by widespread brain injury involving Broca's and Wernicke's areas ad other areas in the left frontal, temporal and parietal lobes and characterized by extensive disruption in the ability to produce and understand language
Global
______________ theory of emotion Proposes that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli (e.g., afraid because knees are shaking and your heart is pounding)
James-Lange
_____________ theory of emotion Proposes that emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously as a result of thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system
Cannon-Bard
___________________ theory of emotion describes subjective emotional experience as the consequence of a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal and the environmental context in which it occurs
Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory
__________________________ theory of emotion Proposes that emotions are universal but that there are differences in how emotion-arousing events are interpreted or appraised
Lazarus's cognitive appraisal
Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory: list and define three kinds of cognitive appraisal
1. Primary appraisal (person's evaluation of a situation as irrelevant, positive-benign, or stressful; depends on individuals' beliefs/values/expectations)
2. Secondary appraisal (person's evaluation of the resources he or she has to cope with a situation
Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory: ______________ appraisal is when a person monitors situations and as necessary modifies his or her primary and/or secondary appraisals
re-appraisal
Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory: ______________ appraisal is when a person's evaluation of the resources he or she has to cope with a situation that has been identified as stressful
secondary
Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory: ______________ appraisal is when a person's evaluation of a situation as irrelevant, positive-benign, or stressful; depends on individuals' beliefs/values/expectations
primary
Comprising of the Hippocampus, mammillari bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, and cingulate gyrus, ______________________ mediates the experience and expression of emotion.
Papez's circuit
Areas in the ______ hemisphere govern happiness and other positive emotions, while areas in the _________ hemisphere mediate sadness, fear, and other negative emotions
Left; right
The part of the brain that is responsible for the immediate feeling of fear we experience when faced with a dangerous/threatening situation is the ___________
Amygdala
___________________ is Involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses
Hypothalamus
Selye's General adaptation syndrome is Mediated primarily by the _______________________ and involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
adrenal and pituitary glands;
2. Alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion
Selye's General adaptation syndrome: ____________ stage is when In response to stress, when hypothalamus activates the adrenal medulla to increase epinephrine release, causing body's glucose level to rise and increases heart and respiration rates
Alarm reaction
Selye's General adaptation syndrome: ____________ stage is when If stress persists, breathing and heart rates return to normal levels, but hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which activates adrenal cortex t
Resistance
Selye's General adaptation syndrome: ____________ stage is when With prolonged stress, pituitary gland and adrenal cortex lose their ability to maintain elevated hormone levels, and physiological processes begin to break down is
Exhaustion
First attempt to link emotion to stress; These people are Highly competitive, achievement oriented, sense of time urgency, tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient; Cynical and antagonistic hostility is most strongly associated with health prob
Typa A behavior pattern
Sexual differentiation in fetal development occurs at approximately _____________ weeks.
6-8
Sex-related differences in physical appearance (such as in the human brain) is referred to as _________________.
Sexual dimorphism
At puberty, an increase in _____________ hormones influences the emergence of ___________________ and the development of the ____________ system
1. Gonadal
2. Secondary sex characteristics
3. Reproductive
The ___________________________ axis is the system initiated at puberty where the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland, which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production b
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
_______________________ is Used to reduce negative effects associated with menopause but is associated with negative side effects such as blood clots, strokes, and breast cancer
Hormone replacement therapy
List and describe 5 stages of sleep based on EEG patterns
1. Beta waves: alert, fully awake state
2. Alpha waves: awake, rested, relaxed state
3. Theta waves: deep relaxation, light sleep
4. Delta waves: deep sleep
5. REM sleep: presence of rapid eye movements
5 stages of sleep: presence of rapid eye movements
Stage 5: REM sleep
5 stages of sleep: deep sleep
Stage 4: Delta waves
5 stages of sleep: deep relaxation, light sleep
Stage 3: Theta waves
5 stages of sleep: awake, rested, relaxed state
Stage 2: Alpha waves
5 stages of sleep: alert, fully awake
Stage 1, Beta waves
During the first few months of life, infants begin a sleep period with _______ sleep which then gradually changes to _________ sleep; this sequence reverses by about _______ months of age
REM; non-REM; 3
A(n) _________________ brain injury Results from non penetrating blow to head often includes injury to the brain and site of the blow as well as bruising on the opposite side of the brain and typically results in Alteration or loss of consciousness, some
Closed head
A(n) _________________ brain injury injury is when the Skull is penetrated and Usually does not cause loss of consciousness, produces more localized damage and more highly specific symptoms
Open-head
Three factors determining severity of TBI
1. Initial score on the Glasgow Coma scale
2. Duration of posttraumatic amnesia
3. Duration of loss of consciousness
4 Common cognitive deficits following TBI
1. Alteration of consciousness
2. Disorientation
3. Memory impairment
4. Impaired speed of processing, attention, and executive functions
Refers to post-injury anterograde amnesia
Posttraumatic amnesia
___________________ syndrome is characterized by Initial: Headache, dizziness, nausea, blurred vision, and drowsiness and Subsequent: insomnia and fatigue, tinnitus, cognitive impairment, irritability, depression, and anxiety
Postconcussional
Type of hormrones produced by the pituitary gland
Gonadotropic hormones
2 types of hormones secreted by the ovaries
estrogen and progesterone
2 types of androgens secreted by the testes
testosterone and adrostenedione
AKA stroke, sudden or gradual onset of neurological symptoms resulting from disruption in the blood supply to the brain is considered a __________________ accident
Cerebrovascular accident
cutoff for mild to severe symptoms of sleep deprivation = _________ hours
48
Glasgow Coma Scale score, PTA time, & LOC time for mild injury
Score: 13-15; PTA less than 1 hour, LOC less than 30 min
Glasgow Coma Scale score, PTA time, & LOC time for moderate injury
Score: 9-12; PTA 1-24 hrs, LOC 30m-1day
Glasgow Coma Scale score, PTA time, & LOC time for moderate injury
Score: <=8; PTA or LOC 24+ hrs
List and describe three major causes of stroke
1. Thrombosis (blockage of an artery by a blood clot)
2. Embolism (sudden blockage of an artery by material from another part of the bloodstream)
3. hemorrhage
Causes of stroke: profuse bleeding
hemorrhage
Causes of stroke: sudden blockage of an artery by material from another part of the bloodstream
Embolism
Causes of stroke: blockage of an artery by a blood clot
Thrombosis
2 major risk factors for stroke
hypertension
atherosclerosis (thickening of lining of arterial walls)
___________ are the sudden, rapid, jerky, purposeless movements involving limbs, trunk, or face
Chorea
Depression occurs in up to _______% of stroke patients.
40
Early features of ______________ disease include clumsiness and figeting, then followed by facial grimaces and piano playing movements of the fingers, chorea, and a characteristic "dance-like" gait
Huntington's disease
Parkinson's disease is caused by degeneration of dopamine-containing cells in the __________________________ ________________.
substantia nigra
Early features of ______________ disease include positive and negative symptoms such as tremor at rest, pill-rolling motion between thumb and forefinger, muscle rigidity, and akathisia, speech difficulties, depression.
Parkinson's
A Seizure is due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain that causes one or more of the following symptoms: _________ signaling the onset of the seizure (feeling, odor, noise); loss of _____________; abnormal _____________
Aura; consciousness; movement
a seizure that affects both sides of the brain
Generalized seizure
Two types of generalized seizures
1. Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures
2. Absence (petit mal) seizures
Generalized seizures: Include a tonic stage in which muscles contract and body stiffens, a clonic stage that involves rhythmic shaking of the limbs, and postictal depression or confusion with amnesia
Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures
Generalized seizures: Brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms; often exhibits a blank stare with frequent eye blinking
Absence (petit mal) seizures
Begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body initially, although they sometimes spread and become generalized seizures
Partial seizures
Two main types of partial seizures
1. Simple partial seizures (involving LOC)
2. Complex partial seizures (entailing some alteration in consciousness)
___________________ is a Progressive disease of the nervous system that involves a degeneration of the myelin surrounding nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord
Multiple sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis: type that is Characterized by alternating periods of relapse and remission
relapsing-remitting
Multiple sclerosis: type that Involves gradual worsening of symptoms without distinct periods of relapse and remission
secondary progressive
4 primary Symptoms of multiple sclerosis
1. Optic neuritis (eye pain and/or blurred or double vision)
2. Fatigue
3. Motor impairments
4. Sensory abnormalities (itching, pain)
Electrical sensation that runs down the back into the legs; sensory abnormality often found in multiple sclerosis
Lhermittes sign
When high blood pressure is not due to a known physiological cause, ____________ hypertension is diagnosed
primary
When elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease, _____________ hypertension is diagnosed
secondary
Involves general muscle aches, tenderness, and stiffness
Fibromyalgia
_______________- headache is a Severe, recurrent throbbing headache usually limited to one side of the head and accompanied by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea/constipation, sensitivity to light, nose, and odors
Migraine
A common migraine _____________ (does/does not) have aura and may be signaled by GI or other symptoms
does not
A classic migraine _____________ (does/does not) have aura
does
Involves excruciating pain that occurs in clusters (1 or more tiems a day) over a 2-3 month period, nonthrobbing pain usually located behind one eye and may involve face and temple
Cluster headache
Characterized by nonthrobbing pain on both sides of the head, at the back of the neck, or in the facial area, experienced as a band of pressure/tightness around head
Tension headache
fullness, tension, or throbbing ache brought on by a frontal sinus infection
Sinus headache
Develops after ovulation and lasts until just before or after menstruation, includes anxiety, depression, emotional lability, fluid retention, backache, food cravings
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
The _________ gland is referred to as the "master gland" because of it's influence on the other endocrine glands
pituitary
Endocrine Disorders: Hyposecretion of antidiurectic hormone (ADH) results in ____________________, while hypersecretion of ADH results in _____________________; encountered in the ___________ gland
1. Dwarfism
2. Giantism
3. Pituitary
_________________ (Grave's Disease) is related to the Hypersecretion of thyroxine and associated with Sped-up metabolism, elevated body temp, heat intolerance, increased appetite with weight loss, accelerated heart rate, agitation, emotional lability
Hyperthyroidism
_________________ is related to the Hyposecretion of thyroxine and associated with Slowed metabolism, reduced appetite with weight gain, slowed heart rate, lowered body temp, lethargy, depression
Hypothyroidism
_________________ is caused by Hyperinsulinism and associated with symptoms of Hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, confusion
1. Hypoglycemia
________________ is caused by Hypoinsulinism in the pancreas and is associated with Increased appetite with weight loss, polyuria, polydipsia, susceptibility to infection, and apathy, confusion, and mental dullness
Diabetes mellitus
Type ____ diabetes receives insulin treatment
2
Pharm: ______________ Produce effects similar to those produced by a neurotransmitter
Agonists
Pharm: a(n) ___________ agonist exerts effects by mimicking the effect of an NT at a receptor site whereas a(n) ___________ agonist attach to binding site on a receptor cell and facilitates action of NT
direct; indirect
Pharm: __________ agonists Produce effect opposite the effect produced by an NT or an agonist
Inverse
Pharm: _________ agonists Produce effects that are similar to (but less than) effects produced by NT or agonist
Partial
Pharm: Produce no activity in the cell on their own but instead reduce or block the effects of an NT or agonist
Antagonists
Pharm: __________ antagonists Attach to binding site on a receptor cell and interfere with the action of the NT vs ____________ antagonist Exert effects by attaching to an NT's receptor site
indirect; Direct
Chlorpromazine, Thioxanthene, and Haloperidol are traditional/conventional ________________ drugs
antipsychotic
Use of __________________________ alleviate psychotic symptoms and treat schizophrenia, acute mania, delusions/hallucinations associated with major depression, and organic psychoses
traditional/conventional antipsychotics
Traditional antipsychotics alleviate _____________ symptoms of schizophrenia, although they are less effective for its _________________ symptoms
1. Positive
2. Negative
Mode of action for traditional antipsychotics Exert effects by blocking _______________ receptors in the brain
dopamine
Main side effects of traditional antipsychotics
1. Anticholinergic effects
2. Extrapyramidal effects
3. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
Side effects of traditional antipsychotics: Dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation, tachycardia, delayed ejaculation
Anticholinergic effects
Side effects of traditional antipsychotics: Akathisia (extreme motor restlessness), Acute dystonia (muscle spasms in mouth, face, and neck), Tardive dyskinesia (involuntary rhythmic movements of the jaw, lips, tongue, and extremities)
Extrapyramidal side effects
Side effects of traditional antipsychotics: Rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
Clozapine, Respiridone, Olanzapine, and Quetiapine are considered _____________________ antipsychotic drugs
atypical/novel
Mode of action for atypical antipsychotic drugs acts on ________ and other _____________ receptors as well as receptors for other NTs including serotonin and glutamate
D4 and other dopamine receptors
An important advantage of atypical antipsychotics is that they are less likely to cause ________________
Tardive dyskinesia
Five major types of antidepressants
1. Tricyclics (TCAs)
2. SSRIs
3. MAOIs
4. NDRIs
5. SNRIs
Mode of action for TCAs Block reuptake of __________, __________, or __________ at nerve synapses
norepinephrine, serotonin, and/or dopamine
TCAs are particularly useful for alleviating the ________________ symptoms of depression
Vegetative and somatic
Most serious problem of TCAs
Cardiovascular symptoms
___________ are particularly effective for Melancholic depression
SSRIs
GI disturbances, insomnia, sexual dysfunction are common side effects of ________
SSRIs
Use of _____________ are reserved for atypical depressions that involve anxiety, reversed vegetative symptoms, and interpersonal sensitivity
MAOIs
MAOIs Inhibit monamine oxidase, which deactivates what three NTs?
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Can occur when MAOI is taken in conjunction with barbiturates, amphetamines, antihistamines, or other drugs or foods with tyramine; Results in Severe headache, stiff neck, rapid heart rate, nausea, vomiting, sensitivity to light
Hypertensive crisis
Lithium & Carbamazepine are ______________ drugs
mood stabilizing
___________ is used to treat Bipolar disorder involving manic episodes with elevated mood and without rapid cycling of moods
Lithium
The retention of lithium is affected by the body's _______________ levels
Sodium
______________ is Effective tx for bipolar disorder, especially for people who have not responded to lithium
carbamazepine
Generalized CNS depressants are called
Sedative-hypnotics
Sedatives and anesthetic agents are called __________________ and Exert effects by interrupting impulses to the reticular activating system
Barbiturates
__________________ Primarily relieve anxiety but also treat sleep disturbance, seizure, cerebral palsy by stimulating inhibitory action of GABA
Benzodiazepines
Anxiolytic that reduces anxiety without sedation
Azapirone
_____________ are used to Treat high blood pressure, angina, physical symptoms associated with anxiety Block beta-adrenergic receptors, which respond to what two hormones?
Beta-blockers; epinephrine and norepinephrine
_______________ (opioids) are prescribed for Pain relief
Narcotic-analgesics
are prescribed for narcolepsy and ADHD and potentiate release of norepinephrine and dopamine and block their reuptake
Psychostimulants
________________ Prevents alcohol use in those with alcohol use disorder and functions as an Opioid receptor antagonist
Naltrexone
______________ Prevents alcohol use in those with alcohol use disorder and functions to Inhibit alcohol metabolism, causing accumulation of acetaldehyde and unpleasant reactions that deter individual from drinking alcohol
Disulfram