Review the organs of digestion.
Mouth, Teeth, Esophagus
Stomach, Pancreas, Liver
Gallbladder, Small Intestine
Large Intestine, Rectum
List the five major metabolic pathways.
...Metabolic Pathway - Series of progressive chemical reaction steps involving energy production or conversion., Oderly sequence of enzyme mediated reaction by which cells maintain, increase, or decrease the concentrations of particular substances
1. Oxid
List and describe macro and micronutrients.
Macronutrients provide energy and include Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins.
Micronutrients are essential for the metabolic activity for macronutrients and include vitamins & minerals.
MACRO = Large, MICRO = Small
Address the four major biomolecules
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Proteins
In-&-organics
Review the digestive enzymes
..., are responsible for the chemical changes that break foods down into simpler forms of nutrients for use by the body, proteins found in digestive juices that act on food substances, causing them to break down into simpler compounds, trypsinogen, trypsi
What are the physiologic and anatomic steps to digestion?
Ingestion, Absorption, Transport, Metabolize
Brain, Hormones, Circulation
Respiration, Excretion
Integumentary System
Nervous <-> Endocrine System
Musculoskeletal System
Circulatory System
- Respiratory System
- Digestive System
- Urinary System
Review physiologic and anatomic digestion.
Nutritients -> Digestion -> (Biomolecules) Absorption & Transport -> (Metabolic reactions) Catabolism & anabolism -> Cellular & Molecular Action
What are the Energy units?
kcal/g
Energy productivity
(Explain why fats have the highest outcome among major fuels)
Carbs = 4 kcal/g
Proteins = 4 kcal/g
Fats = 9 kcal/g
Alcohol = 7kcal/g
Explain the importance of micronutrients.
required for biosynthetic pathways (the synthesization of larger molecules from smaller components. ie: the synthesis of proteins from amino acids
What are the major fuels?
Integrate these three biomolecules.
Carbohydrates -
Proteins -
Fats/Lipids -
Describe fed state carbohydrate metabolism
..., a. Glucose Storage
1. Glycogenesis
2.Glycogenolysis
b. Glycolysis
c. Crebs Cycle
d. The Cytochrome System and Oxidative Phosphorylation., glucose<---->glycogen
lactic acid ----> glucose, ketones, zinc deficiency = decreased insulin and the response =
Describe fed state metabolism of protein
..., a. Proteins used primarily as structural components, cannot by stored for use later.
b. If inadequate glucose, proteins broken down to AA's, which can be truned into pyruvic or acetic acid.
c. Of the 20 AA's the body cannot produce 8-9 essential AA's
Describe fed state fat metabolism
..., fatty acids and glycerol to acetyl CoA, a metabolic process that breaks down ingested fats into fatty acids and glycerol and then into simpler compounds that can be used by cells of the body, Triglycerides can be hydrolyzed to glycerol & fatty acids
Address forms of energy storage and significance.
Glycogen
- Liver
- Muscle
Fat and carriers
- Endogenous fats
- Exogenous fats
Glycogen
A compact glucose storing compound composed of extensibely branced polysaccharides.
Found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal Equivalent of starch
Liver
secretes bile and functions in metabolism of protein and carbohydrate and fat
Muscle
..., tissue composed of fibers that can contract, causing movement of an organ or part of the body
Fat & Carriers
...
Endogenous Fats
..., Fats derived or originating internally, Produced within the body
Exogenous Fats
Exogenous fats are found in the Chylomicrons
Endogenous Fats are synthesized in the liver and include VLDL, HDL, LDL, and IDL
Explain ATP-ADP cycle
Understand ATP is a nucleotide
Nucleotide
monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugarcovalently bonded to a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base, building block of a nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)
free energy release through ATP hydrolysis
..., ATP is converted to ADP & phosphate energized myosin heads (removal of phosphate) need energy, break bonds between 2nd and 3rd phosphate, process in which ATP is broken down and energy is harnessed, hydrolysis of ATP reorients and energizes the myosi
Address roles of hormones which control:
- Fed state metabolism
- Fasting state metabolism
......, insulin
glucogen
epinephrine
growth hormone
glucocorticoids
thyroid hormone
Fed state metabolism
insulin promotes glucose metabolism
Fasting state metabolism
...
Compare physiologic and cellular respiration
Exchange
Energy production,
Physiologic Respiration - concerns the bulk flow and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment
Cellular Respiration - process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecul
catabolism vs. anabolism
..., The sum total of all processes in an organism which break down chemicals to produce energy and simple chemical building blocks, The process that synthesizes a complex molecule from simpler compounds, thus requiring energy.
Address carbohydrates
Molecular formulas
Sugar names for different roles
Isomers
Structural
Isomers
compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
Stereo isomers
Identical chemical groups bonded to the same Carbon atom but have different orientation or arrangement of atoms in space.
1. D and L isomers
2. + and - isomers
3. Epimers
4. Anomers, Ex. Glucose + Galactose, molecules that have atoms in the same order but
D and L isomers
...Carbs can contain several isomers. Most common ones = D vs. L. Most common in nature = D (like D-glucose). (Said to know what a ketone is on this structure). Said these sugars are usually present in a ring form. In nature, monosaccharides are always in
+ and - isomers
..., isotopes same number of protons and electrons but diff number of neutrons in the nucleus. Isomers same molecular formula but are different 3-D., The difference is that when the longest chain is pointing upwards, it is Cis, otherwise if it's diagonall
Epimers
..., two sugars that differ only in configuration around one carbon atom, Isomers where the only difference is the rotation around the 1C are known as _______, monosaccharides that differ in the position of one hydroxyl group, Differ in configuration at o
Anomers
..., Cyclic stereoisomers differing in configuration at the hemiacetal carbon (C1). In a 6-membered ring, if the hydroxy group attached to C1 and the substituent attached to C5 are trans, the molecule is referred to as the ? anomer. If both groups are cis
Simple sugars
Monomers
Dimers, glucose, fructose, sucrose, monosaccharides and disaccharides, basic unit of carbohydrates that are made up of 3 - 6 carbons, contain 1 or 2 molecular sugar chains.
Monomer sugars
..., small unit that can join together with other small units to form polymers
Dimers
..., two monomers bonded together
Complex sugars
Amylose
Amylopectin,
sugar molecules that can be hydrolyzed or digested to yield two molecules of the same or different simple sugars, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose, are long chains of sugars called polysaccharides (ex. starch, cellulose, chitin (
Storage and structure of complex sugars
...
Amylose
..., Simplest starch which is a long unbranching chain of glucose molecules, a digestible straight-chain type of starch composed of glucose units, Linear (unbranched) polymer of D-glucose units.
This polysaccharide is one of the two components of starch,
Amylopectin
..., A short, branched polysaccharide with short, linear amylose branches that are typically 20-30 subunits, ________ is a digestible branched chain type of starch composed of glucose units., Branched structure consisting of alpha-D-glucose units with alp
Structural forms of complex sugars
...
Describe cyclic sugars
...
Furanose Sugars
..., 5C sugar, ex: fructose, 5 membered rings (ketoses) Fructose, Ribose ex, five-membered ring formed from a monosaccharide
Alpha and beta anomers of glucose
..., refers to alpha-glucose 1,6-same side; only anomer that can be broken down by humans and beta-glucose 1,6-opposite side can't be broken down by humans
Explain types of glycosidic linkages
Alpha
Beta,
Covalent bonds holding monosaccharides together, formulated by a condensation reaction; Uses H atom from hydroxyl of one sugar and OH from hydroxyl of another sugar.
, Bond between carbohydrate (sugar) molecules through an intervening oxygen a
Alpha
...
Beta
...
Explain why humans do not digest cellulose
...
lactose intolerance
..., Inherited absence of the enzyme lactase., the inability to completely digest the milk sugar lactose, Body is lacking the enzyme (lactase) that breaks apart lactose (glucose+galactose). Then, the molecules are 'too big.' Instead, bacteria come by and
Review biological roles of lipids
...
Lipids
Fatty acids
Glycerides
Complex lipids
Non-glycerides, energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, biochemicals that do not dissolve in water (fats, oils, and waxes) make up cell membranes, s
Glycerides
..., formed by the attachment to glycerol; dehydration synthesis produces monoglyceride(glycerol plus one fatty acid) diglyceride (glycerol + two fatty acids), triglyceride (gylcerol + three fatty acids), the most common form of lipids consisting of a gly
Complex lipids
..., glycerol, two fatty acids and a phospate group; phospholipids, triglyerides; phospholipids; waxes, simple lipids containing additional elements or small carbon compounds, contain elements such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfer in addition to CHO, C
Non-glycerides
..., includes steroids (cholesterol, sphingolipids)
Compare and describe fatty acids and triglycerides
..., long term energy storage molecules formed during condensation synthesis between 3 fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol, Large fat molecules composed of three parts fatty acid and one part glycerol
Triglyceride formation
..., formed by the reaction of glycerol with 3 fatty acids, in this dehydration synthesis, 3 molecules of water are removed to form ester bonds btwn the glycerol and fatty acids, glycerol+3fatty acids through condensation, Fatty acids attached to the glyc
Triglyceride hydrolysis
..., The triglyceride and two molecules of water are split, leaving a monoglyceride and two molecules of water.
fatty acids
..., simple forms of fat that supply energy fuel for most of the body's cells, unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids, building blocks of lipids, Substances produced when fats are digested, Monomer of lipids, long chains carbon chains with hydr
Carboxylic acids
..., compounds containing carboxyl groups, RCOOH, a compund that contains the -COOH functional group, oxidation of aldehydes produces, alternative name for organic acids because of the carboxyl group they contain, acids that contain the carboxyl group COO
Compare saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
...
Explain why polyunsaturated fatty acids are recommended to good health care?
...
Compare fats and oils
...
Describe core structure of amino acids
Alpha Carbon, carboxylic group, amino group, side chains
Alpha Carbon
..., The first carbon atom adjacent to the carbon attached to the targeted functional group., At the center of an amino acid is an asymmetric carbon atom called the, Has four groups bonded to it; R side chain, amino group, carboxyl group, and hydrogen, re
Carboxylic group
..., An organic compound containing a carboxyl group, COOH, a functional group consisting of a carbonyl group attached to a hydroxyl group ; it is found in carboxylic acids, an acidic functional group(COOH), Chemical Formula: -COOH
suffix = -oic, a functi
Amino Group
..., A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of +1., NH2, A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen a
Side chains
..., the parts of the amino acids that are not involved in forming peptide bonds, If there are no double/triple bonds, then ___ _____ receive the lowest possible numbers when numbering carbons in the naming process., Step 5 in naming a hydrocarbon: Identi
Explain why 20 amino acids of human body are all alpha forms?
...
amino acid polymerization
..., Ribosomes sythesize protein polymers and the amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, proteins are long amino acid chains with amino acid (N) and carboxy (C) ends
Explain and list essential amino acids
Lysine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Threonine
Valine
Tryptophan
Phenylalanine
Methionine
Histidine
Why some amino acids are called 'essential'?
Because they cannot be synthesized in the body.
Explain physiologic control of plasma blood concentration
Hormones
digestive Hormones
..., gastrin: digestive protein, secretes hcl & pepsin, stimulates motiltity
secretin: inside duodenum,stimulated by acid, secretion of bile& bicarb, NEUTRALIZE ACIDIC CHYME
cck: fat digestion,gastric emptying, satiety, usually made of proteins, act as ch
biochemical reactions
..., Chemical reactions that have biological origin (or significance); responsible for signal transductions-which allows cells to respond to the environment, are dependent on ENZYMES, Chemical reactions that take place in living organisms (Cellular Respir
Biochemical reactions under fed and fasting states
...
Explain why muscle is not directly involved in blood sugar control
...
dietary fibers
..., in plant foods the non starch polysaccharides that are no digested by human digestive enzymes although some are digested by GI tract bacteria. dietary fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, and mucilages, non polysaccharide ligins,
Types of dietary fibers
...
Benefits of dietary fibers
...
Risks of dietary fibers
...
insulin synthesis & release
..., ? Insulin is composed of two chains held together by disufide bonds. Insulin is synthesized in significant quantities only in beta cells in the pancreas. The insulin mRNA is translated as a single chain preproinsulin, and removal of its signal peptid
Explain insulin Glucose transporters
...
Compare insulin and glucagon
...
Describe fat metabolism under fed state
VLDL
Chylomicrons
VLDL
..., very low density lipoprotein, large lipoproteins rich in triglycerides VLDLs circulate through the blood giving up their triglycerides to fat and muscle tissue until the VLDL remnants are modified and converted into LDL, Very low density lipoproteins
Chylomicrons
..., fat droplets covered in protein that diffuse into capillaries in small intestine, the class of lipoproteins that transport lipids from the intestinal cells to the rest of the body, lipoproteins formed in the cells lining the small intestine following
Describe fat digestion in terms of Emulsion
...
Emulsification
..., the dispersion of a liquid in another liquid varying in viscosity, any mixture of two or more immiscible liquids in which one liquid is dispersed in the other, process in which bile breaks down fat, What is the physical process using bile salts and l
Micelles
..., Emulsified lipid droplets in the small intestine are scientifically termed ________., clusters of fatty acids monglycerides and bile salts with fat soluble vitamin cores that enable breakdown products of fat digestion to contact microvilli and be abs
Describe fat digestion in terms of Micelles
...
Enterohepatic circulation
..., The circulation of drugs which were originally secreted in the bile via the liver, then reabsorbed by the stomach, and brought back to the liver where they are again biotransformed., compounds secreted in the bile following liver metabolism are cleav
Describe fat digestion in terms of Enterohepatic circulation
...
Describe the two pathways to fat storage
..., fats can be used by muscles and heart for energy; can be stored as energy in fat cells; can be sent to the liver to be dismantled, triglycerides in adipose tissue, 9 KCal/g; units = energy/gram, most energy per gram
require little H2O to store (compa
lipoproteins
..., Combinations of protein, triglycerides, and cholesterol in the blood that are important because of their role in influencing the risk of heart disease, Composed of lipids and proteins. Transport fats throughout bod - composed of HDL and LDL proteins.
Describe lipoproteins Contents
...
lipoprotein carrier
...
What is HDL? Is it considered healthy or unhealthy? Why?
..., High Density Lipoprotein, a lipoprotein that transports cholesterol in the blood composed of a high proportion of protein and relatively little cholesterol; high levels are thought to be associated with decreased risk of coronary heart disease and at
What is LDL? Is it considered healthy or unhealthy? Why?
..., low-density lipoprotein, a lipoprotein that transports cholesterol in the blood composed of moderate amount of protein and a large amount of cholesterol; high levels are thought to be associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease and ather
Compare body fuel and hormone levels during fed and fasting states
...
ketone bodies
..., The liver can combine two acetyl groups into one of three compounds which are released into the blood. Cells in heart and brain use them to make Acetyl CoA which then enters the citric acid cycle., the product of the incomplete breakdown of fat when
Ketogenesis
..., The formation of ketones from the excess products of lipid breakdown, formation of ketone bodies instead of acetyl CoA from fatty acids, This is the synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA, formation of ketone bodies from acetyl co-enzyme-A in liv
Describe ketone bodies related to Fuel demand
...
Organs and tissues which depend on ketone bodies
...
Integrate ketone formation, mobilization, paths, and target organs/tissues
...
diabetic ketogenesis
...
Address long-term fasting (starvation) metabolism
- Fuels
- Fuel molecules
- Blood contents
Describe and compare cellular actions of insulin
and glucagon
...
Glucose Metabolism
..., another name for cellular respiration, Body's preferred energy source=glucose. most tissues/organs able to use other forms of ATP production (except brain/NS bc it cannot use fats/proteins to make ATP and cant store glucose), Body uses both glucose (
Fat Metabolism
..., a metabolic process that breaks down ingested fats into fatty acids and glycerol and then into simpler compounds that can be used by cells of the body, liver is responsible for this; fat storage (manufactures cholesterol), primarily energy foods, cat
Protein Metabolism
..., The liver is involved in this, which includes synthesis of proteins, synthesis of non-essential amino acids, deamination and transamination of amino acids an removal of ammonia from body by urea synthesis., Synthesized proteins are actively transport
Glycolysis
..., a metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP, first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule o
B-Oxidation
...1) Process by which energy is extracted from Fatty Acids (in mitochondrial matrix)
2) Yields more ATP than glucose, Breaks down acyl coA to ketones and TCA cycle
Odd chain FA- glucose source
Even chain FA- cannot generate glucose (only make acetyl-CoA)
Acetyl Coenzyme A (CoA)
...A key intermediate compound in metabolism; consists of a two-carbon acetyl group covalently bonded to coenzyme A., the compound that reacts with oxaloacetic, a two-carbon compound made of acetic acid formed from the break down of pyruvate with a molecu
Lipolysis
..., breakdown of triglycerides, the hydrolysis of fat; the decomposition of fats, breakdown of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol, breaking down fat for fuel, the enzyme-driven catabolism of triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol, lipid catabol
Gluconeogenesis
....The formation of glycogen (a glucose storing compound) from non-carbohydrates such as fatty acids and/or proteins.
Explain the Oxidative Pathway
...A catabolic process which breaks molecules down: Fuel is converted through oxidation into CO2 and H2O by transferring electrons to O2. This generates heat and energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Biosynthetic Pathway
..., Metabolic pathway by which organic compounds are synthesized., Builds organic compounds from small molecules and requires a net energy input., pathway through the cytoplasm that delivers proteins to various destinations. it also discharges many prote
Storage Pathway
...Fuel stores which are readily available to be converted into oxidizable substances are kept in various forms in various places of the body:
Fat/Triglycerides - stored in adipose tissue throughout the body but especially in hips, thighs and abdomens. Th
Waste Disposal Pathway
...Removes xenobiotics & toxins which have been introduced to our bodies through diet (food), air or drugs via urine and feces.
Mobilization Pathway
..."communication" signals between cells, blood and tissues via hormones
Xenobiotics
...Compounds that have no use or value in the human body and may be toxic. IE: drugs
Oxidation
...The removal of hydrogen or electrons from a compound or addition of oxygen; half of a redox (oxidation or reduction) process
Reduction
...Any process in which electrons are added to an atom or ion (as by removing oxygen or adding hydrogen), always occurs accompanied by oxidation of the reducing agent
Redox
...A reversible chemical reaction in which Oxidation and Reduction reactions are coupled together in a single term - redox. This involves the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant (element) to another: also called oxidation-reduction reactio
Polysacharides
...starch, cellulose, glyxogen, large macromolecule formed from manosaccharides, polymers of a few hundred to a few thousand monosacharides linked togeather by dehydration synthesis., (sugars, carbohydrates) store and transfer Energy, the monomers of this
disacharides
...2 monosaccharides, joined by a covalent bond, maltose, sucrose, lactose, 2 monosacharides linked together my dehydration synthesis (condensation)-all same formula C12H22O11
Sucrose (table sugar (glucose+frutose)
Lactose -milk sugar (glucose+galactose),
monosacharides
...Simple sugars such as ribose and glucose, - The carbohydrate monomer
- a simple sugar
- building block of more complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)
- examples include: glucose, fructose, & galactose
amino acids
...building blocks of proteins, Simple forms of protein normally used to build tissues or, under some conditions, burned for energy, small units that are linked together chemically to form large protein molecules, organic molecules possessing both carboxy
essential amino acids
...Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eatin in foods, Amino acids that an animal cannot synthesize itself and must be obtained from food. The nine amino acids that cannot be manufactured by the body and must therefor
Glucagon
...a hormone secreted by the pancreas - stimulates increases in blood sugar levels in the blood (thus opposing the action of insulin), The antagonist of insulin. Its release is stimulated by low blood glucose levels. It stimulates the liver, its primary t
Fat
...a soft greasy substance occurring in organic tissue and consisting of a mixture of lipids (mostly triglycerides), lipid; made up of fatty acids and glycerol; protects body organs, insulates body, and stores energy in the body, organic compound consisti
Oil
...a slippery or viscous liquid or liquefiable substance not miscible with water, liquid at room temperature, a type of fat that remains liquid at room temperature, example of triglyceride, energy storage in animals, some plants, A common name for a trigl
Saturated Fat
...fat in which all three fatty acid chains contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms, a lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms, a lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms;
Unsaturated fat
...A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms, A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms; tend to be oily liquids at room temperature; found in plants (p. 47)., one or
aerobic respiration
...the process in which pyruvic acid is broken down and NADH is used to make a large amount of ATP; the part of respiration that is carried out in the presence of oxygen, cellular respiration that uses oxygen, sequentially releasing energy and storing it
anaerobic respiration
...The use of inorganic molecules other than oxygen to accept electrons at the "downhill" end of electron transport chains., the process by which cells obtain energy from an energy source without using oxygen, series of ATP producing reactions that do not
Hydrolysis
...a chemical process in which a compound is broken down and changed into other compounds by taking up the elements of water.
What is Cellulose? Why can't we digest it?
...a polysaccharide that is the chief constituent of all plant tissues and fibers, Chemical compound made out of sugar. Provides structure and support in plants., _____ is an undigestible nonfermentable straight-chain polysaccharide made of glucose molecu
metabolism
...set of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials as it carries out its life processes
pyranose
...6C sugar, ex: glucose, 6 membered rings (most aldoses), 6C monosaccharide ring, 6 membered ring structure, hexagon-shaped
*note - if the OH on the anomeric carbon (C-5) points down on the pyranose, it's L-Glucose. If up, it's D-Glucose
DOWN = L
UP = D,