Prior knowledge
encompasses all that a person knows or believes; one's mental histories
behaviorism
the study of human actions devoid of the interference of human thought or reasoning
classical conditioning
tapping into the natural stimulus-response pairings that already exist to form new ones
operant conditioning
voluntary actions can be conditioned through the systematic and effective use of reinforcers and punishments
unconditioned stimulus
any stimulus that can evoke a response without going through learning
unconditioned response
the natural reaction one has to a stimulus without going through learning
conditioned stimulus
a formerly neutral stimulus that, after learning and association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to produce a conditioned response
Conditioned response
the learned response to a conditioned stimulus instead of an unconditioned stimulus
positive reinforcement
giving something desirable with the intent of encouraging the behavior
negative reinforcement
taking away something undesirable to increase the likelihood of a behavior
presentation punishment
decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by giving something undesirable
removal punishment
decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by taking away something desirable
information-processing model
explains how individuals take in information from the environment and transform it into stored knowledge
Cognitive constructivism
knowledge is individually formed and an individual possession that can only be learned at levels of appropriate mental development
Radical constructivism
we create knowledge and it is based solely on our individual perceptions
Social constructivism
thinking and learning are dependent on social interactions and reflective of cultural values
Situated cognition
Focuses on the physical and human resources in the environment and concerned for the immediate context and process of knowing rather than the product of knowledge
Socioculturalism
the roots of learning and development exist in human sociocultural interactions and the way groups construct understandings
declarative knowledge
specific labels, facts, definitions, explanations, or descriptions
procedural knowledge
the how's of understanding critical to efficient and effective functioning
conditional knowledge
understanding when, where and for what reason knowledge should be brought into play
explicit knowledge
the component of knowledge that surfaces in the realm of consciousness
implicit knowledge
the portion of our knowledge base that lies outside our direct awareness
unschooled knowledge
those understandings acquired as a result of out of school experiences
schooled knowledge
knowledge that is the outcome of intentional learning
inert knowledge
knowledge that does not guide actions or color perceptions in a meaningful way
academic domains
recognized and institutionalized educational fields or subjects
encryption
the codification or representation of concepts and procedures in symbolic form
well-structured tasks
tasks for which there are typically agreed upon answers and accepted means of getting those answers
ill-structured problems
tasks that have a wide range of acceptable outcomes and as many means of reaching those ends as students in the class
reading
deciphering a written message and constructing meaning from the linguistic clues the message provides
decoding
breaking the linguistic code down
encoding
achieving fluency in converting encryptions into meaning
phonological awareness
sensitivity to the sounds that comprise a given language
syntax
grammatic structure of language
semantics
the meaning of a language's linguistic units
signaling
in writing, the use of transitions to tell readers how textual units fit together
corroboration
comparing events or details presented in one source with those offered in other accounts before accepting them as valid
contextualization
situating some particular event or account in the sociopolitical context in which it occurred
sourcing
determining who provided the information and what motives/beliefs may have shaded their perceptions
interpretation
formulating an opinion about some aspects of the past
explanation
communicating interpretations to others in an appropriate manner
quantification
a sense of quantity or amount
abstraction
processes in which marks or symbols come to represent more than their explicit physical nature
idealization
when physical objects in the environment are internalized as perfect mathematical forms
generalization
consolidating info into a more encompassing statement
representation
the process by which individuals form an internal, mental model of the info before them or an external depiction of that internal model
translation
the ability to convey models in some alternative format
observing
in science, seeing the world with a critical and probing eye
chronicling
in science, documenting observations for subsequent analysis
conceptual change
all modifications of conceptual knowledge structures and how people understand and respond to the world around them
accretion
the simplest and subtlest form of conceptual change involving an elaboration or enrichment of existing knowledge structures through experience or the acquisition of relevant information
weak restructuring
reshaping and adjusting mental frameworks in order to grow conceptually
radical restructuring
conceptual changes that reflect an alteration of fundamental world views
concepts
the labels we apply to webs of ideas linked by shared characteristics
persuasion
the process of stimulating or compelling individuals to alter their personal beliefs
perceived knowledge
what individuals think they know about some topic
demonstrated knowledge
what an individual shows they know about a topic
transfer
the use of knowledge and skills acquired under one set of conditions in alternative conditions
extraordinary
transfer involving significant insights that others would judge as highly creative or transforming
everyday
numerous, mundane, less dramatic occasions for knowledge transfer
positive transfer
the ability to use existing knowledge to facilitate (transfer) learning and development in new and varied contexts
negative transfer
when prior knowledge hurts performance in new contexts (transfer)
functional fixedness
the tendency to see objects or experiences from a single, everyday point of view
near transfer
transfer that occurs in small steps across tasks that are highly similar
far transfer
transfer in which the distance between what has been taught and what is required for the new application if knowledge is greater
general transfer
the positive and global effect on general academic performance as a result of learning one body of rigorous content
specific transfer
learning one body of content improves specific content learning
low road
a mindless transfer achieved by routine practice of problem-solving skills
high road
a mindful and reflective transfer that requires exploration of complex problems encountered from diverse perspectives
reproductive thinking
mimicking thoughts or procedures presented by others
productive thinking
constructing new interpretations or devising new insights from available information
analogical thinking
thinking based on the processes of discerning relations among aspects of two seemingly dissimilar ideas, objects, or events
bridging
setting the stage for transfer by providing students with a pathway from old to new content
prompting
reminders by teachers to reach back into prior knowledge and content
strategies
mental operations or techniques that are employed to solve problems or to enhance performance
skills
procedures that have been routinized or have become mental habits
chunking
sorting information to improve memory
self-analysis
the ability to judge one's own performance
positive self-talk
internal conversations that encourage reflection and problem solving
self-regulation
the assessment and oversight of more than cognition
strategic teaching
enhancing the strategic thinking that occurs in the learning environment