proximate biological considerations
those biological considerations which are IMMEDIATE;Behavioral/Cognitive Neuroscience (i.e. how the nervous and endocrine systems influence behaviors/thoughts)
ultimate biological considerations
those biological considerations which are DISTANT; Evolutionary Psychology, Comparative Psychology, Ethology
reciprocal innervation
first described by Descartes, a combination of antagonistic muscle movements (e.g. those involved in walking)
nucleotides
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
receptive field
portion of a sensory field to which a cell responds
species- specific reactions
automatic and rapidly acquired reactions, not attributable to reinforcement or conditioning
law of specific nerve energies
...
autonomic nervous system
links the nervous system and endocrine system; comprised of involuntary efferent neurons and divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic branches: Sympathetic Nervous System is involved in the "fight or flight" response and the Parasympathetic Nervou
efferent neurons
motor neurons found in the Somatic (voluntary) and Autonomic (involuntary) Nervous Systems
myelin sheath
part of a glial cell that wraps around the axon of a neuron, providing insulation that facilitates speed of propagation of action potential
umami
means "savory" in Japanese and is a taste receptor found on the tongue; activated by glutamate present in meats, cheese and other protein heavy foods
spatial summation
two different presynaptic neurons/inputs to a post-synaptic cell
temporal summation
cumulative effects of repeated stimulation from a presynaptic neuron
proximal image
the visual image of the world on the retina
basal forebrain
produces acetylcholine. One of the earliest sites of cell death in Alzheimer's Disease (neurological disorder associated with a deficiency in acetylcholine) is in the basal forebrain
Thompson & Spencer
These two developed the criteria for habituation; basic process is a form of synaptic depression that occurs presyntaptically.
Glial cells
these cells perform a variety of functions but do not transmit information; one type forms the myelin sheath
endocrine system
comprised of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid, the adrenal cortex, the adrenal medulla, the pancreas, the ovaries/testes, pineal gland.
thyroid
has a major role in metabolism, stimulation/maintenance, produces the hormones thyroxin and calcitonin
parathyroid
has a calcium-related role and produces the hormone parathyroid
hypothalamus
glandular system control center
produces the hormones oxytocin and antidiuretic; functions in both the nervous system and endocrine sytem.
In the forebrain, regulates motivated behaviors (eating, drinking, aggression, sexual behavior
hindbrain
begins where spinal cord ends
3 structures: the medulla, the pons, the cerebellum
brainstem
midbrain, medulla and the pons
midbrain
sits just above the hindbrain, contains cranial nerves, parts of the reticular formation,important relay stations for sensory information and the substantia nigra
substantia nigra
located in the midbrain, a group of neurons which produce dopamine and degenerate in Parkinson's Disease
basal ganglia
Located in the forebrain, basal ganglia -> movement,speech and other complex behaviors
medulla & pons
these two brain structures contain entry/exits for most of the cranial nerves and control vital functions (heart rate,digestion, respiration)
pineal gland
controls circadian rhythms, produces melatonin (daylight signals go to the eyes to the hypothalamus to the pineal gland)
the adrenal medulla
increases heartrate, dilates/constricts blood vessels, increases blood sugar
produces hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine
collateral sprouting
mechanism whereby neurons make connections to new areas to change their connectivity
subcortical structures
located underneath the cerebral cortex and includes the bottom portion of the forebrain.
cerebellum, basal ganglia, medulla, pons, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
antimanics
#NAME?
amacrine cells
cells that integrate information across the retina; rather than sending signals toward the brain, amacrine cells link bipolar cells to other bipolar cells and ganglion cells to other ganglion cells
suprachiasmatic nucleus
SCN = controls circadian rhythms
located directly above the optic chasm in the anterior portion of the hypothalamus, receives input from the eyes which is why light exposure affects our sleep-wake cycles
phenotype
expression of traits
diploid
having two copies of each chromosomes in most cells (except the gametes)
most mammals are diploid
biological foundations
includes comparative (evolution/genetics/animal behavior/ethology) and behavioral regulation
behavioral regulation
eating, sex, aggression, sleep
focus on subcortical and neuroendocrine control of behavior
pituitary gland
stimulates bone growth and produces the hormones: somatotropin, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating, adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), follicle-stimulating, luteinnizing
adrenal cortex
functions in metabolism (carbohydrate, protein, lipid) and in the endocrine system's salt/water balance
produces the hormones cortisol and aldosterone
cortisol
...
ovaries/testes
affect sex characteristics/development and produce estrogen/progesterone (in females, ovaries) and testosterone (in male, testes)
adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
-hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland
-signals the adrenal gland to secrete corticosteroid hormones.
-ACTH is a critical component of the HPA Axis that controls the stress response
norepinephrine
functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the brain
cerebral cortex
convoluted of hills (gyri) and valleys (sulci) divided into two hemispheres (left and right) which are further divided into four lobes (occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal)
REM sleep
physiologically different from the other four stages of sleep (i.e. the similarity between the summed electrical activity of neurons measured on the scalp (EEG) during REM sleep and during wakefulness
amygdala
-emotional perception and expression (particularly fearful emotions and detection of threat)
HPA Axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
-controls stress response
homeostatic regulation
occurs for body temperature, blood glucose levels, blood concentration, etc
-hormones are important
corpus callosum
-forebrain
-band of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
ethology
the scientific study of animal behavior; documentation of species-specific instinctual behaviors
acetylcholine
-learning and memory
-neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscle axons to excite the muscle to contract
aphasia
acquired language disorders, usually caused by damage in the left hemisphere; includes Broca's: (left frontal lobe damage) and Wernickes's (left temporal/parietal damage)
hair cells
auditory receptor cells in the cochlea that turn sound vibrations -> neural impulses
endorphin & enkephalin
hormones that reduce pain
hypnagogic activity
sleepwalking, sleep talking
zygosity
similarity of alleles for a trait in an organism (i.e. heterozygous or homozygous)
spinal cord
has neurons for reflexes
Korsakoff's amnesia
an anterograde amnesia in which one cannot form episodic memories BUT in experiments, patients that cannot identify previously heard melodies do show a preference for them -> explicit memory function has a different neurological basis than implicit memory
emotional disclosure + immune functioning
research indicates that the expressing of negative emotions is associated with increased immune function; inhibiting negative emotions with decreasing immune function
the 7 major neurotransmitters
acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, endorphin
acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)
somewhat excitatory, also involved in
synaptic plasticity, learning and short-term memory
glutamate (neurotransmitter)
most pervasive excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in vertebrates; these receptors are ionotropic
ionotropic receptors
receptors whose activation directly affects potassium or chloride ion channels in the neuron
(many drugs of abuse substitute for natural GABA- alcohol, benzos, barbituates
dopamine (neurotransmitter)
-activates one of 5 types of receptors in the CNS
- cognition, motor activity, reward, muscle tone, sleep, mood, attention, learning
-higher level effects of dopamine = D2
-3 major pathways of dopamine in brain
biological etiology of ADD/ADHD
insufficient dopamine in the frontal cortex
the 3 major pathways of dopamine in the brain
1. ventral tegmentum to mesolimbic forebrain (cognition, reward systems, emotional behavior)
2. substantia nigra to caudate nucleus putamen (movement and sensory stimulation)
3. hypothalamus to pituitary gland (neuronal/hormonal control)
serotonin (5-HT) (neurotransmitter)
serotonin = 5-HT
-regulation of mood, anxiety, aggression, sleep, appetite, sexuality
-rostral and caudal raphe nuclei
norepinephrine
neurotransmitter in CNS, hormone in peripheral vascular system; deficiencies > depression, ADD; noradrenergic nuclei = locus coeruleus
locus coeruleus
one of the primary noradrenergic nuclei whose ascending axons project to frontal cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system
endorphin
is a peptide neurotransmitter and a natural painkiller and antianxiety
dirty medications; clean medications
affect multiple receptors; highly preferential to which type of receptor they affect
sleep
a BEHAVIOR; insistent urge of sleepiness forces us to seek sleep/a bad
stages of sleep
1. Stage I (non-REM sleep)
2. Stage II (non-REM sleep
3. Stage III (non-REM sleep, slow-wave sleep)
4. Stage IV (non-REM sleep, slow-wave sleep)
5. Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM sleep)
~takes about 90 minutes for one full sleep cycle
alpha activity
smooth electrical activity of 8-12 Hz
-medium frequency, awake but in a restful state (^ eyes closed but conscious)
beta activity
irregular electrical activity of 13-30 Hz
state of arousal, attentive
theta activity
occurs intermittently during early stages of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep
3.5-7.5 Hz
delta activity
occurs during the deepest stages of slow-wave sleep; regular, synchronous electrical activity of less than 4 Hz
sleep spindles
short bursts of waves 12-14 Hz that occur 2-5 times a minute during stages 1-4 of sleep; most characteristic of sleep Stage II; some believe sleep spindles are involved in keeping one asleep (decline in older people)
K Complexes
sudden, sharp waveforms found only in Stage II of sleep; spontaneously occur about one per minute but also to unexpected noises
slow-wave sleep
contains delta activity, stages III and IV
non-REM sleep; synchronized EEG activity during its deeper stages
sleep attack
symptom of narcolepsy
irresistible urge to
sleep paralysis
symptom of narcolepsy, paralysis occurring just before a person falls alseep
cataplexy
symptom of narcolepsy; complete paralysis that occurs while AWAKE/conscious; will suddenly fall to floor paralyzed for a few minutes
basic rest-activity cycle
a 90-minute activity cycle occurs throughout the day as well as throughout sleep (in humans) waxing and waning alertness controlled by a biological clock in the caudal brainstem that also controls cycles of REM and slow-wave sleep
REM sleep; Slow Wave Sleep
EEG desynchrony (rapid,irregular waves), lack of muscle tonus, rapid eye movements, penile erection/vaginal secretion, dreams; EEG synchrony (slow waves), moderate muscle tonus, slow/absent eye movements, lack of genital activity
hypocretin
a peptide, also known as OREXIN, produced by neurons whose cell bodies are located in the hypothalamus; their destruction causes narcolepsy
REM rebound
the increase in REM sleep seen after a period of REM sleep deprivation
melatonin
hormone secreted during the night by the pineal body; role in circadian and seasonal rhythms
sexual dimorphic behavior
a behavior that has different forms or occurs with different probabilities or under different circumstances in males than females
gonad
an ovary or teste
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
occurs at the onset of puberty; a hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropin
Coolidge effect
the restorative effect of introducing a new female sex partner to a male that has apparently become "exhausted" by sexual activity
estrous cycle
the female reproductive cycle of mammals other than primates
menstrual cycle
the female reproductive cycle of most primates, including humans; recognized by growth of the lining of the uterus, ovulation, development of a corpus luteum, and (if pregnancy does not occur) menstration
progesterone
a steroid hormone produced by the ovary that maintains the endometrial lining of the uterus during the later part of the menstrual cycle and during pregnancy; along with estradiol it promotes receptivity in female mammals with estrous cycles
pheromone
a chemical released by one animal that affects the behavior or physiology of another animal; usually smelled or tasted
medial nucleus of the amygdala
involved in the effects of odors/pheromones in reproductive behavior, a nucleus that receives olfactory information from the olfactory bulb and accessory olfactory bulb
the 4 effects of pheromones on reproductive cycles
the Lee-Boot effect, Whitten effect, Vandenbergh effect, and the Bruce effect; all mediated by the VNO
Vomeronasal Organ
a sensory organ that detects the presence of certain chemicals, especially when a liquid is actively sniffed; mediates the effects of some pheromones
Lee-Boot effect
the slowing and eventual cessation of estrous cycles in groups of female animals that are housed together; caused by a pheromone in the animals urine and first observed in mice
Whitten effect
the synchronization of the menstrual or estrous cycles of a group of females, which occurs only in the presence of a pheromone in a male's urine
Vandenbergh effect
the earlier onset of puberty seen in female animals that are housed with males caused by a pheromone in the male's urine and first observed in mice
Bruce effect
termination of pregnancy by the odor of a pheromone in the urine of a male other than the one that impregnated the female; first observed in mice
Hebb rule
if a synapse is active at about the same time that a postsynaptic neuron is active, that synapse will be strengthened
All-or-None Law
when a neuron reaches its excitation threshold, the neuron will produce an action potential of FIXED amplitude regardless of the magnitude of the stimulation
equipotentiality
related to plasticity, the term Lashley used to describe different parts of the cortex being interchangeable in their roles in learning
reaction time
decreases with age up until age 30, then begins to increase *
(counter intuitive)
*
extirpation
also known as ABLATION, is any surgically induced brain lesion
absolute refractory periods
occurs when an external stimulation, regardless of intensity, will not trigger a new action potential
relative refractory period
occurs when a neuron is hyperpolarized and characterized by sufficient strength of stimulation triggering a new action potential
the ___ refractory period follows the ____ refractory period
absolute; relative
GABA
in the CNS, is an amino acid that stabilizes neural activity
biological etiology of Parkinson's Disease
is a loss of dopamine cells in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia; these cells are usually dark (nigra) but in Parkinson's, the substantia nigra appears white due to cell death
biological etiology of schizophrenia
is an oversensitivity to dopamine (D2)
monoamine neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and serotonin
homeostasis
is regulated by the hypothalamus
osmoregulation
the maintenance of water balance in the body
osmoreceptors
found in the hypothalamus, function to maintain the water balance in the body
lateral hypothalamus (LH)
contains receptors to detect when the body needs food or fluids; the hunger center; lesions lead to aphagia
ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
referred to as the satiety center; lesions lead to obesity and hyperphagia
anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual activity; lesions inhibit sexual behavior; stimulation increases aggressive sexual behavior
ventricles
fluid filled cavities in the middle of the brain, linking to the spinal canal that runs down the middle of the spinal cord; this fluid is cerebrospinal fluid
cerebrospinal fluid
found in the ventricles and spinal canal
septum
pleasure center of the brain; discovered by Olds & Milner
septal rage
occurs when their is damage to the septal area and results in unchecked aggressive and vicious behavior
motor cortex
is found in the frontal lobe (which is divided into the prefrontal lobes and ___ ___)
association area
an area that combines input from diverse brain regions
projection areas
receive incoming sensory information or send out motor impulse commands
association areas; projection areas
combines input from diverse brain regions; receives sensory information/sends motor impulses
hippocampus
lesions to this brain structure that is crucial to memory will produce anterograde amnesia
amygdala
associated with defensive and aggressive behavior; lesions produce docility and hypersexual states (Kluver & Bucy)
graded potentials
are postsynaptic potentials that are found in the dendrites and vary in their intensity
zygote
a single, unfertilized cell created during conception; the combined egg + sperm
Yerkes-Dodson Law
states that performance is worst at extremely low or extremely high levels of arousal and optimally at an intermediate level
contralateral
most brain communications are with the opposite side of the body
ipsilateral
some brain communications are with the same side of the body
temporal lobes
associated with (spoken) language reception/comprehension, memory processing, and emotional control; contains Wernicke's area and the auditory cortex
occipital lobes
AKA the striate cortex, located at the back of the brain, and contains the visual cortex
parietal lobes
in the posterior frontal lobe, contains the somatosensory cortex (touch, pressure, temperature, pain)
sensorimotor cortex
refers to both the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex (they are a little different but very interrelated)
galvanic skin response (GSR)
measure changes in the electrical resistance of the skin (sweat gland activity)
polysomnograms
sleep tests (i.e. to diagnosis sleep apnea)
hypothalamus
regulates body temperature
spinal cord
relays nerve impulses, processes sensory impulses, reflex behavior and contains nerve cell bodies
cutaneous senses
skin senses that register the sensations of pressure, warmth and cold
triggers of behavior
consummatory stimuli, sign stimuli, supernormal stimuli, releaser
consummatory stimulus
consummatory stimulus
supernormal stimulus
supernormal
sign stimulus
sign
cerebellum
maintains balance/posture and coordinates body movements
cerebellum
damage to this are causes clumsiness and loss of balance
anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual activity
hypothalamus
governs eating/drinking (lateral and ventromedial hypothalami) and sexual activity (anterior portion
H.M
a patient who had intact intelligence but an inability to learn/remember anything new (severe anterograde amnesia)
lesions in the reticular activating system
produce drowsiness and sleepiness
neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)
occurs under drug-induced conditions, including excessive use of marijuana; high body temperature, autonomic instability and muscle rigidity
nystagmus
if head is rotated, eye movements occur in the same direction
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
is increased in its production by training/experience and therefore, associated with memory
scotopic vision
is generated by photoreceptors that are only sensitive to degrees of brightness; black-and-white vision found in the rods
Hobson & McCarley
extensive research in dreams, said BAH to Freud; proposed the activation-synthesis hypothesis (dreams are nothing more than the product of random electrical impulses)
path of lightwaves entering eye
cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina
aqueous humor
the viscous substance between cornea and lens
vitreous humor
transparent substance between lens and retina
aqueous humor; vitreous humor
viscous substance between cornea and lens; transparent substance between lens and retina
pupil
opening in the iris; dilates and contracts allowing different levels of light in
iris
colored part of the eye
suspensory ligament
holds the lens in place
lens
focuses light waves on the retina and is held in place by the suspensory ligament; aqueous humor on cornea side; vitreous humor on retina side
accommodation (bodily)
lens changes initiated by the ciliary muscles to change the shape of the lens in order to focus image on the retina
synthesis-activation hypothesis
suggests that dreams are nothing more than the product of random electrical impulses (Hobson & McCarley)
indications of psychological-physiological interaction in pain
phantom limb pain, hypnotic induction and the success rate of placebo treatments
retinal ganglion cells
follow Hering's Opponent Process of color vision, and only have two types: red-green and yellow-blue; other levels of color vision are tri-chromatic
trichromatic levels of color vision
occur in amacrine, bipolar and horizontal cells; govern/encompass the opponent-process level of color vision
tritanopia
an inherited form of defective color vision in which hues with short wavelengths are confused (blue cone dysfunction); see world in green and red
fusiform face area
a region of the visual association cortex located in the extrastriate cortex at the base of the brain that has special face-recognizing circuits (more important in right hemisphere)
neuropeptide Y (NPY)
reduces anxiety, released with NE in amygdala, hippocampus, basal ganglia, periaqueductal gray region, locus coeruleus and PFS; NPY is diminished in persons with PTSD/CPTSD and those exposed to chronic stress
a decrease in neuropeptide Y
is found in PTSD/CPTSD patients and persons exposed to chronic stress
an increase in alpha-1 receptors
completely disactivates the prefrontal cortex (PFC); due to high levels of norepinephrine (NE)
Bem's Androgyny studies
instead of one continuum for sex (masculine-feminine), her work in the presence of both masculine and feminine features/development suggests these are actually two separate continuums (defeminized-feminized and unmasculinized-masculinized)
monozygotic twins
actually are two kinds: monochorionic and dichorionic (blastocyst splis into two before day 4)
prefrontal hypoactivity
causes mesolimbic dopamine hyperactivity; etiology of schizophrenia
prefrontal cortex
projects to ventral tegmental area
Ketamine
is used as an anaesthetic for children and animals but causes psychosis in adults
Farber et al. (1995)
found that developmental changes occurring in puberty make the brain more susceptible to the psychotic effects of NDMA antagonist and therefore also related to the emergence of symptoms of schizophrenia
antagonist
a drug that opposes/inhibits the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell
agonist
a drug that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell
direct antagonist
is a receptor blocker; binds with a receptor but does not activate it, actually prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor
receptor blockers
are direct antagonists; binds with a receptor but does not activate it, but prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor
indirect antagonists
attaches to the binding site on a receptor and interferes with the receptor's action, but NOT by interfering with the principal ligand's binding site (noncompetitive binding)
noncompetitive binding
is characteristic of indirect antagonist drugs
ligand
...
noncompetitive binding
binding of drug to receptor site that doesn't interfere with the principal ligand
Cranial Nerves
there are 12
add more
Cranial Nerve I
Olfactory Nerve, smell
Cranial Nerve II
Optic Nerve, sight
Cranial Nerve III
Oculomotor Nerve, moves eye pupil
Cranial Nerve IV
Trochlear Nerve, moves eye
Cranial Nerve V
Trigerminal Nerve, face sensation
Cranial Nerve VI
Abducens Nerve, moves eye
Cranial Nerve VII
Facial Nerve, moves face and salivates
Cranial Nerve VIII
Vestibulocochlear Nerve, hearing and balance
Cranial Nerve IX
Glossopharyngeal Nerve, taste swallow
Cranial Nerve X
Vagus Nerve, heart rate and digestion
Cranial Nerve XI
Accessory Nerve, moves the head
Cranial Nerve XII
Hypoglossal Nerve, moves the tongue
path of cerebrospinal fluid
Choroid Plexus > Ventricle 1 & 2 > Foramen of Monro > Ventricle 3 > Aqueduct of Sylvius > Ventricle 4 > Foramen of Magendie lateral aperture) > Foramina of Luschka (lateral aperture), subarachnoid space (outside of brain) and spinal cord > re-absorption i
meninges
3 layers of tissues that cover and protect CNS; dura mater (outermost layer), arachnoid mater (middle layer), Pia mater (innermost layer)
subdural space
is found between the dura mater and arachnoid mater meninges
subarachnoid space
is found between the arachnoid mater and Pia mater; this is where CSF cushions (and bathes) the brain, giving it the floating quality (and keeping it moist/circulating)
lipid soluble drugs/medications
pass the easiest through the blood-brain barrier
effects of repeated administration
result in either tolerance (and possible withdrawal symptoms) or sensitization (increase effectiveness of the drug)
affinity
readiness with which molecules/drugs/medications join together; varies widely from medication to medication
bregma
junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery
autolytic
self-dissolving
anterograde
moving forward
tyrosine
precursor to the catecholamine neurotransmitters (DA + NE)
glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)
precursor to GABA (the most inhibitory/regulatory/pervasive neurotransmitter)
tectum
dorsal part of midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi
mesencephalon
the midbrain; a region that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes tectum and the tegmentum
mesencephalon
includes the tectum and tegmentum
superior colliculi
Vision: protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of visual system
inferior colliculi
Audition: protrusions on top of midbrain; part of auditory system
diencephalon
includes the thalamus and hypothalamus; region of forebrain surrounding the 3rd ventricle
hypothalamus + thalamus
are found in the diencephalon
mammillary bodies
part of limbic system; protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, contains some hypothalamic nuclei
amygdala
is found in the interior rostral temporal lobe, part of limbic system
cingulate gyrus
strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum
thalamus
has two lobes that are connected by the massa intermedia (looks like a pair of balls, without the nutsack)
hypothalamus
is found at the base of the brain, underneath the thalamus (**remember hypo-below)
projection fiber
an axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region
fornix
in the limbic system, is a fiber bundle, connects hippocampus with stuff (including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus)
tectum
roof
substantia nigra
in the tegmentum (ventral part of midbrain); its neurons connect to caudate nucleus + putamen (in basal ganglia)
reticulum
little net
reticular formation
a large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon
tegmentum
covering
tegmentum
ventral part of midbrain, includes periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra
red nucleus + substantia nigra
important to motor system
symptoms of Parkinson's Disease
tremors, rigidity of limbs, poor balance and difficulty initiating movements
tardive dyskinesia
can occur after long term antipsychotic tx (opposite of Parkinson's?); oversensitivity to dopamine
cerebellum
little brain
nigrostriatal system
bunch of dopaminergic neurons starting in the substantia nigra and ending in the neostriatum
neostriatum
caudate nucleus and putamen
Mesolimbic System
bunch of dopaminergic neurons starting in the ventral tegmental area and ending in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus
Mesocortical system
bunch of dopaminergic neurons starting in the ventral tegmental area and ending in prefrontal cortex
dopaminergic systems
include the Nigrostriatal system, Mesolimbic system and Mesocortical system
endogenous
made from within, natural
monoamines
include indolamines (serotonin) and catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine)
monoamines
all have similar molecular structure, so many "dirty" medications
L-Dopa
is used to treat Parkinson's Disease
Frontal lobe
is everything anterior to the central sulcus
effects of repeated administration
include tolerance (possible withdrawal) and sensitivity
tolerance
decreasing effects of a medication due to repeated administration
sensitivity
increasing effects/effectiveness of a medication due to repeated administration
non-competitive binding
binding of a drug to a receptor site that does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand
non-competitive bonding
is characteristic of indirect antagonists
indirect antagonists
attaches to a binding site on receptor and interferes with the action of the receptor without affecting the binding site for the principal ligand (noncompetitive binding)
projection area
areas in the brain receiving incoming sensory information or sending out motor-impulse commands