Abnormal Psychology
The field devoted to the scientific study of abnormal behavior to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning
workers in psych field
Clinical scientists
Clinical practitioners
Deviance (the four D's)
Different, extreme, unusual, perhaps even bizarre
Distress (4 D's)
Unpleasant and upsetting to the person
Dysfunction (4 D's)
Interfering with the person's ability to conduct daily activities in a constructive way
Danger (4 D's)
Posing risk or harm
Szasz argues that
because of the influence of culture, the whole concept of mental illness is invalid, a myth of sorts
Treatment or therapy
is a procedure designed to change abnormal behavior into more normal behavior
According to Jerome Frank, all forms of therapy have three essential features
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer and his or her social group
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer, often with the aid
Deviance (from what?)
From behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that differ markedly from a society's ideas about proper functioning
Distress (from what?)
According to many clinical theorists, behavior, ideas, or emotions usually have to cause distress before they can be labeled abnormal
Dysfunction
Abnormal behavior tends to be dysfunctional - it interferes with daily functioning
Culture plays a role in the definition of abnormality as well
Dysfunction alone does not necessarily indicate psychological abnormality
Danger
Abnormal behavior may become dangerous to oneself or others
Behavior may be consistently careless, hostile, or confused
Although cited as a feature of psychological abnormality, research suggests that being dangerous is the exception rather than the rule
The Elusive Nature of Abnormality
Ultimately, each society selects general criteria for defining abnormality and then uses those criteria to judge particular cases
Research
the systematic search for facts through the use of careful observations and investigations
Correlation
the degree to which events or characteristics vary with each other
Positive correlation (slope is upward and to the right) =
variables change in the same direction
Negative correlation (downward slope) =
variables change in the opposite direction
Unrelated (no slope) =
no consistent relationship
High magnitude =
variables which vary closely together; fall close to the line of best fit
Low magnitude =
variables which do not vary as closely together; loosely scattered around the line of best fit
Statistical significance
means that the finding is unlikely to have occurred by chance
experiment
a research procedure in which a variable is manipulated and the manipulation's effect on another variable is observed
Manipulated variable
independent variable
Variable being observed =
dependent variable
control group
a group of research participants who are not exposed to the independent variable, but whose experience is similar to that of the experimental group
Three features are included in experiments to guard against confounds:
A control group
Random assignment
Blind design
In science, the perspectives used to explain events are known as
models or paradigms
Models
influence what investigators observe, the questions they ask, the information they seek, and how they interpret this information
Historically (models/abnormality)
clinical scientists of a given place and time tended to agree on a single model of abnormality - a model greatly influenced by the beliefs of their culture
Today (models/abnormality)
several models are used to explain and treat abnormal functioning
The Biological Model
Adopts a medical perspective
Focus of the Biological Model
is that psychological abnormality is an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism
Biological Model typically focuses on the
Brain
The brain is composed of
100 billion nerve cells (called neurons) and thousands of billions of support cells (called glia)
Within the brain, large groups of neurons form distinct areas called
brain regions
Neurons
do not actually touch each other; they are separated by a space (the synapse), across which a message moves
When an electrical impulse reaches a nerve ending
the ending is stimulated to release a chemical called a neurotransmitter (NT), that travels across the synaptic space to receptors on the dendrites of neighboring neurons
abnormal activity in certain NTs
can lead to specific mental disorders
Endocrine glands
release hormones which propel body organs into action. Abnormal secretions have been linked to psychological disorders
genetics
Sources of biological abnormalities
Each cell in the human body has
23 pairs of chromosomes, each with numerous genes that control the characteristics and traits a person inherits
Biological practitioners
attempt to pinpoint the physical source of dysfunction to determine the course of treatment
Three types of biological treatment
Drug therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Neurosurgery
Drug therapy
1950s = advent of psychotropic medications
Greatly changed the outlook for a number of mental disorders
Four major drug groups:
Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics; tranquilizers)
Antidepressant drugs
Antibipolar drugs (mood stabilizers)
Antipsychotic drugs
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT):
Used primarily for depression when drugs and other therapies have failed
Neurosurgery (or psychosurgery
Historical roots in trephination
1930s = first lobotomy
Much more precise than in the past
Considered experimental and used only in extreme cases
The Psychodynamic Model
Oldest and most famous psychological model
The Psychodynamic Model believes
a person's behavior (whether normal or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying dynamic psychological forces of which she or he is not consciously aware
Father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic therapy
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Id
guided by the Pleasure Principle
Ego
guided by the Reality Principle
Superego
guided by the Morality Principle
three UNCONSCIOUS forces
Id, Ego, Superego
Developmental stages
Oral (0 to 18 months of age)
Anal (18 months to 3 years of age)
Phallic (3 to 5 years of age)
Latency (5 to 12 years of age)
Genital (12 years of age to adulthood
Psychodynamic Therapies
Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to modern therapies
All seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts
Therapist acts as a "subtle guide
Psychodynamic Therapies
Utilize various techniques:
Free association
Therapist interpretation
Resistance
Transference
Dream interpretation
Catharsis
Working through
(the behavioral model)Like psychodynamic theorists, behavioral theorists believe that our
actions are determined largely by our experiences in life
the behavioral model
Concentrates wholly on behaviors and environmental factors
Bases explanations and treatments on principles of learning
the behavioral model began
in laboratories where conditioning studies were conducted
Several forms of conditioning
Operant conditioning
Modeling
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever they do so
Modeling
Individuals learn responses by observing and repeating behavior
Classical conditioning
Learning by temporal association:When two events repeatedly occur close together in time, they become fused in a person's mind; before long, the person responds in the same way to both events
Father of Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Behavioral Therapies
Aim to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropriate ones
Classical conditioning treatments may be used to change
abnormal reactions to particular stimuli
The Cognitive Model
Seeks to account for behavior by studying the ways in which the person attends to, interprets, and uses available information
The Cognitive Model argues
that clinicians must ask questions about assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client
Maladaptive thinking is the cause of
maladaptive behavior
Beck's Cognitive Therapy
The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize and restructure their thinking
Combination model
The humanist view
Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive; focus on drive to self-actualization
Combination Model
The existentialist view
Emphasis on self-determination, choice, and individual responsibility; focus on authenticity
Researchers have learned that spirituality can
in fact, be of psychological benefit to people
Rogers's Humanistic Theory and Therapy
Believes in the basic human need for unconditional positive regard
Humanistic approach
Goal is to guide clients toward self-recognition through challenge and frustration
who developed Humanistic approach?
Fritz Perls
Existential Theories and Therapy
Belief that psychological dysfunction is caused by self-deception; people hide from life's responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives
The Sociocultural Models
Argue that abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual
How Do Family-Social Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning
Focus on:
Social labels and roles
Diagnostic labels (example: Rosenhan study)
Sick role
Social networks
How Do Family-Social Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning
Focus on:
Family structure and communication
Family systems theory argues that abnormal functioning within a family leads to abnormal behavior (insane behavior becomes sane in an insane environment)
Culture
refers to the set of values, attitudes, beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the next
Studies have found that members of ethnic and racial minority groups tend to show
less improvement in clinical treatment than members of majority groups
Integrative therapists are often called "eclectic" -
taking the strengths from each model and using them in combination