learning
A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning.
classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
behaviorism
The view that psychology: (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response.
conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
higher-order conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. (For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn
extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant condition when a response is no longer reinforced.
spontaneous recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit responses.
discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
learned helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
respondent behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished followed by a punisher.
operant behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by faborable consequences become more like, that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).
reinforce
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer in any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
primary reinforce
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
conditioned (secondary) reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
punishment
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
positive punishment
Presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior with the goal of decreasing the behavior that it follows.
negative punishment
Taking something good or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior.
cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
observational learning
Learning by observing others (also social learning).
modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empathy.
prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
little albert
Subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear.
Albert Bandura
Researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment.
John Garcia
Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936).
Martin Seligman
Researcher known for work on learned helplessness and learned optimism as well as positive psychology.
B.F. Skinner
Pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and ra
Edward Thorndike
Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.
John Watson
Behaviorism; focused on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat.
biofeedback
Biofeedback is a technique that trains people to improve their health by controlling certain bodily processes that normally happen involuntarily, such as heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and skin temperature.
aversion therapy
Aversion therapy is a form of behavior therapy in which an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.
taste aversion
In classical condition when the body uses a natural instinct as a means of protection. Warns the body if a type of food is harmful.
over justification effect
When an expected external incentive such as money decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task.