classical conditioning
a learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
unconditioned stimulus
an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training
unconditioned response
an organism's automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus
conditioned stimulus
a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
generalization
responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli
discrimination
the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli
extinction
the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
reinforcement
stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
primary reinforcer
stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water
secondary reinforcer
stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer
shaping
technique in which the desired behavior is "molded" by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward
response chain
learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next
aversive control
process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
negative reinforcement
increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs
escape conditioning
training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus
avoidance conditioning
training of an organism to withdraw from an unpleasant stimulus before it starts
social learning
process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
cognitive learning
form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation
cognitive map
a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events
latent learning
alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior
learned helplessness
condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable
modeling
learning by imitating others; copying behavior
token economy
conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards
learning
change in behavior due to experience
1. stimulus leads to a response
2. motivation
3. association
4. reinforcement
the 4 elements of learning
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
principle of reinforcement
the consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more or less likely to occur again
puzzle box experiment
-experiment by edward thornedike
-put cats in the box and timed how how it took them to escape and get to the food
-repeated until cat learned how to get out
ivan pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
1. unconditioned stimulus
2. unconditioned response
3. neutral stimulus
4. conditioned stimulus
5. conditioned response
parts of classical conditioning experiments
skinner box
a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled
continuous reinforcement
the reinforcement of each and every correct response
partial/intermittent reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
fixed ratio
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable ratio
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
timing and specificity
______________ and _______________ are important in determining the affectivity of reinforcement
punishment
an event that decreases behavior by adding something unpleasant
positive punishment
addition of something unpleasant
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior
dickey
-needed glasses but wouldn't wear them
-withheld food as reinforcement to get to wear glasses
chaining
linking a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series
programmed learning
learning things in small steps
spatial learning
the establishment of a memory that reflects the environment's spatial structure
bobo doll experiment
nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and i
counter-conditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning
mary cover jones
mother of behavior therapy"; used classical conditioning to help "Peter" overcome fear of rabbits
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
systematic desensitization
a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli
flooding
a treatment for phobias in which clients are exposed repeatedly and intensively to a feared object and made to see that it is actually harmless
behavioral contracts
a therapeutic technique that is a negotiated agreement between two parties that explicitly stipulates the behavioral change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts.
transfer
the effect of past learning on new learning
postive transfer
old information helps the learning of new information
negative transfer
old knowledge makes it harder to learn new skill
feedback
the results of learning and knowledge of its results
massed practice
a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption
distributed practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
whole learning
training approach in which the entire task is practiced at once
part learning
training approach in which subtasks are practiced separately and later combined
mnemonic devices
techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information
loci method
a strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations
overlearning
a strategy whereby the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been initially brought to mastery
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
hierarchies
composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system�for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
memory limited in capacity to about 7 items and in duration by the subjects active rehersal
maintenance rehearsal
a system for remembering that involves repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
semantic memory
knowledge of language, including its rules, words, and meanings
episodic memory
chronological retention of the events of one's life
declarative memory
stored knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed
procedural memory
permanent storage of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection
recognition
memory retrieval in which a person identifies an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has or has not experienced before
recall
memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material
reconstructive processes
the alteration of a recalled memory that may be simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual's experiences, attitudes, or inferences
confabulation
the act of filling in memory gaps
schemas
conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the world
eidetic memory
the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
decay
fading away of memory over time
interference
blockage of a memory by previous or subsequent memories
elaborative rehearsal
the linking of new information to material that is already known
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
primacy and recency effect
the tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first or last in a sequence
total recall
the ability to remember with clarity every detail of the events of one's life or of a particular event, object, or experience
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system�for example, by extracting meaning.
multi-store model of memory
-alkinson and shiffrin
-the memory model that visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
touch memory
tactile sensory memory
smell memory
the phenomenon by which scents and smells can trigger spontaneous recall of events that are associated with them
primary memory
Memory that can be addressed and accessed directly by the processor.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
schema theory
people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds
declarative memories
memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events
implicit memories
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
level of processing model
-craik and lockhart
-the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
context dependent memory
when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation
state-dependent memory
the theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
fredrick bartlett
experimentally demonstrated the reconstructive nature of memory
ebbinghaus
created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory
1. neurotransmitters
2. hormones
3. stimulants
things that help memory:
1.
2.
3.
1. depressants
2. certain foods
things that hurt memory:
1.
2.
forgetting
the inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage
1. inattention
2. decay
3. repressed
4. interference
5. displacement
6. amnesia
why we may forget something:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
productive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
infantile amnesia
the inability to remember events from early childhood
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
hippocampal amnesia
amnesia occurring after damage or loss of the hippocampus
Classical Conditioning
-Pioneer: Ivan Pavlov
-A neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response
-Subject is more passive
-Involuntary action
Operant Conditioning
-Pioneer: B.F. Skinner
-A response is increased due to reinforcement or punishment
-Re
CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
Ivan Pavlov
-Russian psychologist
-Studied digestion with animals
Experiment
-Trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell
Parts of Experiment
-Unconditioned Stimulus
-Creates a response without training
-Ex: food/meat
-Unconditioned Response
-Automati
PAVLOV'S EXPERIMENT
Continuous Reinforcement
-Reinforced after every response
Partial Reinforcement
-Ratios
-Fixed Ratio
-Reinforcement after a specific number of responses are given
-Variable Ratio
-Reinforcement after a random amount of responses are given
-Intervals
-Fixe
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
Albert Bandura
-Divided 66 kids into 3 groups and showed a video of woman beating the clown doll
Group 1
-Model rewarded group
-Saw additional clip of woman being rewarded for beating doll
-More aggressive than other groups towards doll when placed in roo
BOBO CLOWN DOLL EXPERIMENT
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Sensory Memory
-When ideas/events are registered by senses
-Lasts only an instant
-Ex: iconic memory (sight memory), echoic memory (sound memory)
Short Term Memory
-Limited in capacity to ~7 items
-In duration by the subjects active
MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY