absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
accommodation
(1) the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (2) adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for rapidly attaining a high standard
achievement tests
tests designed to assess what a person has learned
acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical sharge that travels down an axon
active listening
empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy
adaptation-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, lights, income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
aerobic exercise
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety
aggression
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics
alpha waves
relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
amnesia
the loss of memory
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up functions and associated energy and mood changes
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
antianxiety drugs
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder in which the person exhibits a lack of conscience for wrong-doing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistant anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
aphasia
inpairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (imparing speaking) or to the Wernicke's area (imparing understanding)
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
aptitude tests
tests designed to predict a person's future performance
assimilation
interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortext that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences
attatchment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on seperation
ADHD
a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of the three key symptoms extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a perticular way to objects, people, and events
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition
audition
the sense or act of hearing
autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands that the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking)
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to household language
barbituarates
drugs that depress the activity of the centeral nervous system, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment
basal metabolic rate
the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
basic trust
according to Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
behavior genetics
the study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
behavioral medicine
an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explination by principles of learning
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
binge-eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
biofeedback
a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
biological psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
biomedical therapy
prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incoporates biological, psychological, and social-culutral levels of analysis
bipolar disorder
a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no reporter cells are located there
bottom-up processing
anaylsis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions
Broca's area
controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
catharsis
emotional release
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
central route persuassion
attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions incluse processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-proccessing center
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular body rythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, deveolped by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to faciliate clients' growth
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tude in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
cognition
all the mental activites associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognitive-behavioral therapy
a popular intgrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavioral therapy (changing behavior)
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughs are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
collective unconscious
Carl jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
collectivism
giving priority to goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths refected by the object
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
complementary and alternative medicine
as yet unproven health care treatments intended to supplement or serve as alternatives to conventional medicine, and which typically are not widely taught in medical schools, used in hospitals, or reimbursed by insurance companies. When research shows a t
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 - 11 years old) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association witha primary reinforcer
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss cause by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
conformity
adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time that it occurs
control group
in an experiment, the group that in not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
conversion disorder
a rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found
coping
alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
coronary heart disease
the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and this how well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being
counterconditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments or conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
CT scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
d�j� vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation ay subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
delusions
false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
dendrite
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that recieve messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
denial
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to percieve painful realities
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout a life span
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
discrimination
(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability ot distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicts a response after association with reinforcement
displacement
psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object of person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet
dissociation
a split in consciousness which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
dissociative disorders
disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
dissociative identity disorder
a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities
DNA
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosome
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have recieved the treatment or a placebo
down syndrome
a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders cause by an extra copy of chromosome 21
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
DSM-IV-TR
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, updates as a 2000 "text revision"; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconsious tracks
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
eclectic approach
an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
ecstasy
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. Operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rat
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
electroconvulsive therapy
a biomedical therapy for severly depressed patients in which a brief electrical current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
EEG
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. Measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
emerging adulthood
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
empirically derived test
a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication systerm; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream
endorphins
morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
estrogens
sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics
evidence-based practice
clinical decision-making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
evolutionary psychology
the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
experiment
a research method in which an investigater manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
experimental psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people to the things they fear and avoid
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
extrasensory perception
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
facial feedback
the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms included noticeable facial misproportions
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
fixation
(1) the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set. (2) according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
flow
a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
fMRI
a techinque for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Show brain functions
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later witha larger request
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
fovea
the central focus point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
framing
the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments
fraternal twins
twins who develop from seperate fertile eggs. Genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but share a fetal environment
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulse traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
frontal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can lead to aggression
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for obervers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers
gender
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
gender identity
our sense of being male or female
gender role
a set of expected behaviors for males or for females
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminie role
general adaptation syndrome
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion
general intelligence (g)
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
gestalt
an organized whole. Emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When level is low, we feel hunger
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussions within the group
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimuli, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
hallucinations
false sensory experiences such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hallucinogens
psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of a sensory input
health psychology
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. May vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base of physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect others tissues
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
hypochondriasis
a somatoform disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
hypothesis
a testable prediction, open implied in theory
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive demands.
identical twins
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incoporate their parents' values into their developing super egos
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
imagery
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attatchments during a critical period very early in life
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is direected elsewhere
incentive
a positive of negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
indiviualism
giving priority to one's goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether or not they wish to participate
ingroup
us" - people with whom we share a common identity
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
insight therapies
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 of below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
IQ
defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. On contemporary intelligence test, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness of loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
interaction
the interplay thay occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote high insight
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
intruistic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
iris
the ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and control the size of the pupil opening
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion arousing stimuli
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
kinesthesis
the system of sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive reignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
lesion
tissue destruction
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
limbic system
doughtnut-shaped neural system (including hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines they way we think
lobotomy
a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the brain
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid
lymphocytes
the two types of white blood cells that are a part of the body's immune system. B ______ form in bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T _____ form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, an
major depressive disorder
a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activites
mania
a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
maturation
biological processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experiences
mean
the arithmetic average of distribution, obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores
median
the middle score in a distribution
medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
menarche
first menstral period
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstration; also refers to biological clanges a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
mere exposure effect
the phonmenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; overtime appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and colchea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the ear drum on the cochlea's oval window
MMPI
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when oberving another doing so.
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
mnemonic
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
mode
the most frequent occuring score(s) in a distibution
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad moods
mood disorders
psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word of a part of a word (such as a prefix)
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tussie segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmittion speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to another
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inapportune times
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
naturalistic observation
obsesrving and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
nature vs nurture
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience mat to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death
nerves
bundled axons that form nerual "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
negative reinforcement
increading behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, travel across the snapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, occur during stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
norm
an understood rule for accepted and expeted behavior
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompassess all sleep stages except for REM sleep
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
observational learning
learning by observing others
OCD
an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts and/or actions
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying in the back of the head; includes ares that receive information from visual fields
Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
operant chamber
in operant conditioning, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attatched devises record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer and deminished if followed by a punishment
operational definition
a statement of procedures used to define research variable
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin, they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
organizational psychology
a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
outgroup
them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving it's energy
parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
perception
the process of organizing and interpretting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
peripheral route persuasion
attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker's attractiveness
personal control
the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless
personal space
the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies
personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
personality disorders
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
personality inventory
a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to guage a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
personnel psychology
a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radio active form of glucose goes while a brain performs a given task
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
phobia
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
physical dependence
a psychiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawl symptoms when the drug is discontinued
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
pituitary gland
the endocrine system's most influencial gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, regualtes growth and controls other endocrine glands
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recepient assumes is an active agent
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorginizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
polygraph
a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several physiological responses accompanying emotion
population
all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis sessionm to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
post-traumatic growth
positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises
PTSD
an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawm jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the corretation between test scores and criterion behavior
prejudice
an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years old) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
primary sex characteristics
the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor
projection
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
projective test
a personality test, such as Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
prosocial behavior
posititve, constructive, helpful behavior
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as wells as psychological therapy
psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic technique that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight
psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug
psychological disorder
deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilites, attitudes, and traits
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
psychophysics
the study of relationships between physical charcteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
psychophysiological illness
literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior it follows
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye throught which light enters
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to different groups
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
rationalization
psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions
reaction formation
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses to their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiet-arousing unconscious feelings
recall
a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
recognition
a measure of memory in which people need only to identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
refractory period
a resting perios after an orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
regression
psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an indiviual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusal scores to fall back toward their average
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in conscious of to encode it for storage
reinforcer
in operant conditioning, an event that strengthens the behavior it follows
realtive deprivation
the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves
relearning
a measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
reliability
the extent to which a test yeilds consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test or on retesting
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or surpress brain activity
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situation, to see whether the basic finding extends to other paticipants and circumstances
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represtent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relavent information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
resilience
the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
resistance
in psychoanaylsis, the blocking from consciousness of anxitey-laden material
respondent bahavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
reticular formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that being the processing of visual information
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images from teh reinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and grey; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
role
a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test; seeks to indetify people's inner feelings by anazlying their interpretations of a set of 10 inkblots
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
scatterplot
a grapher cluster of dots, each of which represents the values ot two variables. The slop of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. Amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
schizophrenia
a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions or actions
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical needs and psychological need are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
self-concept
all our thoughts and feeling about ourselves, in an answer to the question, "Who am I?
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also the study of meaning
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 year of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impression and motor activites
senroineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
sensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of flood influences the taste
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list
set point
the point at which and indivual;s "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabiloc rate may act to restore the lost weight
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex or the other sex
sexual response cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
shaping
an operant condioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
short-term memory
activated memory that hold a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialsing, before the information is stored of forgotten
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits and their social context
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavoir is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
social idenity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from group memberships
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social leadership
group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitation and by being rewarded or punished
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when indiviually accountable
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
somatic nervous system
the division of hte peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
somatoform disorder
psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic form without apparent physical cause
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, hear about, read about, or imagined
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
Standford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
statistical significance
a statisical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occured by chance
stereotype
a generalized belief about a group of people
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that on will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning at about 8 months of age
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, ther we appraise as threatening or challenging
structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
structured interviews
interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales
sublimation
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-chanel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activites
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment and for future aspirations
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiveing neuron
syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentances in a given language
systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
tardive dyskinesia
involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long term use of antipsychotic drugs that target certain dopamine receptors
task leadership
goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs
temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
teratogens
agents, such as chemical or viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
terror-management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Stimulates the growth of male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male characteristics during puberty
thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on the top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
TAT
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors of events
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange tokens for various privileges or treats
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships
two-factor theory
the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
two-word stage
beginning at age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
Type A
Friedman and Rosenmann's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B
Friedman and Rosenmann's term for easy going, relaxed people
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salvation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, infomation processing of which we are unaware
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
virtual reality exposure therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
visual cliff
a laboratory device used for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
visual encoding
the encoding of picture images
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage
WAIS
most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests
well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life; used to evalute people's quality of life
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
withdrawl
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males
trichromatic theory
the Young-Helmholtz theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, and ones to blue - which when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division