hindsight bias
The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted an outcome after knowing that it occurred.
observational method
The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior.
ethnography
The method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have.
interjudge reliability
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, disto
archival analysis
A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and newspapers).
correlational method
The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them is assessed.
correlation coefficient
A statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another.
surveys
Research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behavior.
random selection
A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
experimental method
The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable.
independent variable
The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable.
dependent variable
The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variable will depend on the level of the independent variable.
random assignment to condition
A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants' personalities or backgrounds are distrib
probability level (p-value)
A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psycholog
internal validity
Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions.
external validity
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.
psychological realism
The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life.
cover story
A description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose, used to maintain psychological realism.
field experiments
Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory.
replications
Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings.
meta-analysis
A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable.
basic research
Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as the do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity.
applied research
Studies designed to solve a particular social problem.
cross-cultural research
Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised.
natural selection
The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particular environment are passed along to future generations, because organisms with that trait are more likely to produce offspring.
evolutionary psychology
The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection.
informed consent
Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance.
deception
Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire.
institutional review board (IRB)
A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by t
debriefing
Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired.