fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
EEG
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity (not structure) that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. used for seizures and sleep disorders.
Dopamine
neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward. excess linked to schizophrenia, starved leads to parkinson's disease.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning, memory, and muscle action. Alzheimer's causes ACh to deteriorate.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. undersupply can depress mood.
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory. Oversupply can cause migraines or seizures.
Caffeine
stimulant. most used psychoactive drug in the US.
Antagonists
drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
Agonists
drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters
Chaining
in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
gestalt
an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
Gestalt's Principles
Figure and ground, proximity, similarity, continuation, closure
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (subconsciously learning something).
grouping principles
proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, connectedness
split-brain surgery
procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures
night terrors
happens during stages 3 and 4 of sleep. don't remember anything.
nightmare
different from night terrors because you usually can remember them
parallel processing
The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
intrinsic rewards
the personal satisfaction and enjoyment felt after attaining a goal
extrinsic award
the payoff, such as money, a person receives from others for performing a particular task. man made
cocktail party effect
Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
positive punishment
addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior stop
negative punishment
the removal of a good stimulus following a given behavior in order to discourage behavior
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
retinal disparity
small difference your eyes see and your brain calculates the distance
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
confounding variable
in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
twin studies
good for nature vs nurture issue
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
cross-sectional study
A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.
Psychoanalytical Perspective
the perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior
Humanist Approach
a perspective focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment. carl rogers and abraham maslow
taste aversion
a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as bad because it is associated with negative stimulation
operational definition of a defendant variable
means of measuring the results
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
double-blind study
An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
negative correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases
positive correlation
A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.
Ethical Guidelines for Research
- informed consent
- benefit-to-risk ratio
- confidentiality
- protection from harm
linear perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
beta waves
smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity (awake, alert)
neural messages
primarily an electrical event
Dendrites
receive messages from the sending neuron
synapse
A junction (gap) where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
difference threshold (just noticeable difference)
the smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (voluntary)
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (involuntary). 2 branches
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after stress response, conserving its energy
REM
rapid eye movement, deepest stage of sleep, paralyzed body, babies spend most time in this stage, restorative
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process memories
prefrontal cortex
part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature (survival drive)
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses. contains organ of court
drug categories
depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens
kinesthetic sense
the sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
pons
sleep and arousal
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in fear and aggression.
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone