learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation.
classical conditioning
a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another
stimulus
Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds
reflex
An involuntary response to a particular stimulus
conditioned reflex
A learned involuntary response
unconditioned response (UR)
A response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response
conditioned response (CR)
the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
higher-order conditioning
conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals
extinction
in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished response (in weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period
generalization
in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus
discrimination
the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli
taste aversion
the intense dislike and/or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort
trial-and-error learning
learning that occurs when a response is associated with a successful solution to a problem after a number of unsuccessful responses
law of effect
one of Thorndike's laws of learning, which states that the consequence, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened
operant conditioning
A type of learning in which the frequency of a voluntary behavior changes because of the consequences that the behavior produces
reinforcer
anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the probability that it will occur
shaping
An operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response, therby gradually guiding the responses toward the ultimate goal
Skinner box
A soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject; used in operant conditioning experiments
successive approximations
a series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response
extinction
In operant conditiong, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of the withholding of reinforcement
generalization
in operant conditioning, the tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced
discriminative stimulus
a stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, igored, or punished
reinforcement
an increase in the frequency of a behavior that occurs as the result of an added consequence
negative reinforcement
an increase in a behavior that occurs because increasing the behavior resluts in the termination of an unpleasant condition or stimulus
secondary reinforcer
a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through associaiton with other reinforcers
primary reinforcer
a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement that is administered after every desired or correct response; the most effective method of conditioning a new response
partial reinforcement
a pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all correct responses are reinforced
schedule of reinforcement
a systematic process for administering partial reinforcement that produces a distinct rate and pattern of responses and degree of resistance to extinction
fixed-ratio schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, based on an average ratio
variable-ratio schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses based on an average ratio
fixed-interval schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given following the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after the first correct response that follows a varying time of nonreinforcement, based on an average time
partial-reinforcement effect
the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced
punishment
a decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind of consequence
positive punishment
a decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence
negative punishment
a decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence
avoidance learning
learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias
learned helplessness
a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure of inescapable or unavoidable aversive events
biofeedback
the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that tehy can learn, with practice, to exercise control over them
behavior modification
a method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning priciples of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning.
token economy
a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges
cognitive processes
mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations.
insight
the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent
latent learning
learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so
cognitive map
a mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze
observational learning
learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation
modeling
another name for observational learning
model
the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated
modeling effect
learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses
elicitation effect
exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation
disinhibitory effect
displaying a peviously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment
inhibitory effect
suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior