memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that hold a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
visual encoding
the encoding of picture images
acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, esp the sound of words
semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
imagery
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
mnemonics
memory aids, esp those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory if visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no longer than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
amnesia
the loss of memory
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarative memory)
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)
hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fil-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
d�j� vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined --> false memories
self reference effect
the tendency for individuals to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
state-dependent memory
an idea of learning and recalling that is based upon the physiological and mental state of the organism
the method of loci
Greek orators would create a mental pattern to help form a visual layout to aid in remember long passages
Hermann Ebbinghaus
First person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well; studied forgetting curve and overlearning
Atkinson-Schiffrin model
(1968) 3 stage model of memory including sensory, short-term, and long-term memories
peg word system
a system of memorizing an ordered list of words as well as the specific numbers associated with the words.
next-in-line effect
that a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke immediately before or after this person.
Elizabeth Loftus
psychologist who studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions
Peterson & Peterson
1959: team investigated one of the factors that causes our short-term memory to decay, i.e. why we forget information in our short-term memory.
George Sperling
a cognitive psychologist who documented the existence of iconic memory (one of the sensory memory subtypes).
cerebellum
a neural center in the hind brain that processes implicit memories
context effects
better recall in the setting where info is learned
anterograde amnesia
damage to hippocampus => cannot remember anything after damage, but remembers everything before the damage
Karl Lashley
suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, animals retain partial previous memories