learning
A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
classical conditioning
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neural stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditionin
behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
unconditioned response (UCR)
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally�naturally and automatically�triggers a response.
conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS).
conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
spontaneous recovery
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
respondent behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.
operant behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber (Skinner box)
A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.
shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal.
reinforcer
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
primary reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
punishment
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective.
extrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
observational learning
Learning by observing others.
modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.