memory
any system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
information-processing model
cognitive understanding of memory emphasizing how information is changed
encoding
one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves modification of information
storage
one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves retention of encoded material over time
retrieval
one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves location and recovery of information
eidetic imagery
especially clear form of memory; "photographic memory
sensory memory
preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli
working memory
preserves recently perceived events for less than a minute
long-term memory (LTM)
largest memory capacity and duration; stores material organized by meaning
chunking
organizing pieces of information into smaller, more meaningful units
maintenance rehearsal
information is repeated or reviewed to keep from fading in working memory
elaborative rehearsal
information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM
acoustic encoding
conversion of information to sound patterns
levels-of-processing theory
information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better
procedural memory
stores memories for how things are done
declarative memory
stores facts
episodic memory
stores memory for personal events
semantic memory
stores general knowledge, including meanings of words
engram
physical changes in brain associated with mmory
anterograde amnesia
inability to for memories for new information
consolidation
process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember information previously stored in memory
flashbulb memory
clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful event
implicit memory
memory that was not deliberately learned
explicit memory
memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
retrieval cues
stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness
priming
technique for curing implicit memories tha provides cues to stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection
recall
retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information
recognition
retrieval method in one must identify present stimuli as being previously presented
encoding specifity principle
memory is encoded and stored with specifid cues related to the context in which it was formed
mood-congruent memory
memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood
TOT phenomenon
inability to recall a word while knowing that it is in memory
transience
impermanence of long-term memory
forgetting curve
graph plotting amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material
absent-mindedness
forgetting caused by lapses in attention
blocking
forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
proactive interference
cause of forgetting in which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
retroactive interference
cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material
suggestibility
memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
misinformation effect
distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformaiton
expectancy bias
a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations
self-consistency bias
commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our beliefs and ideas than we actually are
persistence
memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
mnemonics
techniques for improving memory by making connections between new material and information already in LTM
method of loci
mnemonic device that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
language acquisition device (LAD)
biologically organized mental structure that facilitates learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with grammatical rules
grammar
rules of a language, specifying how to use stuff to make other stuff make sense
morphemes
meaningful units of language that make up words
overregularization
applying a grammatical rule too widely and creating incorrect forms
computer metaphor
idea that the brain is an information-processing organ that works like a computer
concepts
mental representations of categories of items or ideas based on experience
natural concepts
mental representations of objects drawn from our direct experience
prototype
ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category
artificial concepts
concepts defined by rules, such as word definitions and math formulas
concept hierarchies
levels of concepts in which a more general level includes more specific concepts
event-related potentials
brain waves in response to stimulation
schema
knowledge luster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, etc.
script
a cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions
algorithms
problem-solving procedures or formulas
heuristics
cognitive strategies or "rules of thumb" used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks
mental set
tendency to respond to a new problem in the strategy used for a previous problem
functional fixedness
inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose
hindsight bias
tendency, after learning about an event, to "second guess" that one could have predicted the events
anchoring bias
faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on an unrelated quantity
representativeness bias
faulty heuristic based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category
availability bias
faulty heuristic that estimates probabilities on information that can be recalled
creativity
mental process that provides novel responses for problems
aptitudes
innate potentialities
whole method
mnemonic strategy of first approaching the material to be learned as a whole, and then learning details
distributed learning
technique where learner spaces learning sessions over time
overlearning
startegy when the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been brought to mastery