communication
The process of sending and receiving information through verbal and nonverbal gestures
Communication Process
-sender encodes info
-the sender selects a channel of communication to send the message
-receiver gets the message
-receiver decodes the message
-receiver may provide feedback to the sender
the receiver decodes the message
-most important part of the communication process
-if not decoded properly, the communication process will fail
noise
-anything that interferes with the communication of a message
-Internal noise (thoughts)
-External noise (unexpected and usually not apart of the conversation)
the principles of communication
-you can't not communicate
-communication is irreversible
-communication is a process
-communication is learned
-communication needs to be cross-culturally appreciated
-attitude is more important that aptitude
-communication skills for you life
- you have
communication and community
allows us to experience life as something larger than a solitary individual
ethics
-the rules that enable people to know right from wrong
-an important aspect of being audience-centered is being ethical
ethics and credibility
-speak truthfully
-become information literate
-avoid purposeful ambiguity
avoid rumors
-uphold unpopular ideas
-avoid excessive and inappropriate emotional appeals
-avoid deception, manipulation, confusion, fallacies
the spotlight effect
-the phenomenon in which people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they really are
-tendency to feel like were constantly being judged
-assumptions that others scrutinize us harshly as we scrutinize ourselves
conclusion of the spotlight effect
people are paying 50% less attention to our actions and appearances then we think they are
Dwyer's basics model
-behavior
-affect
-sensation
-imagery
-cognitive
-stress
-model for overcoming speech anxiety
values
-socially shared ideas about what is good, right, and desirable
-determine what we consider important, how we regard our listeners, how we develop a speech
how Aristotle defines ethos
Speakers are untrustworthy in what they say or advise from one or more of the following causes. Either through want of intelligence they form wrong opinions; or, while they form correct opinions, their rascality leads them to say what they do not think; o
intrinsic ethos
the ethical appeal found in the actual speech, including supporting material, argument, flow, and source citation
extrinsic ethos
a speaker's image in the mind of the audience, includes how knowledgeable, trustworthy, and dynamic the speaker is
monological communication
the audience is viewed as an object to be manipulated, and the speaker displays unethical qualities
dialogic communication
speaker has an honest concern for listeners' interests
-audience centered approach
search
putting forth an effort to learn enough about your topic so you are able to speak knowledgeably and confidently
justice
-reminds us to present and select facts and opinions openly and fairly
-offers the audience the opportunity to make fair judgements
public motivation
giving a speech by using a problem in the public to illuminate a public problem
private motivation
giving a speech for the purpose of personal gain, rather than motivating the public
hidden agenda
a secret motivation that is unknown to the rest of the group
respect for dissent
allows for and encourages diversity of argument and opinion
ethical guidelines
-recognize the power of the podium
-speak truthfully
-become information literate
information literacy
implies consuming information wisely and appropriately
how to ensure information literacy
-point of view (bias or unbiased)
-authority (credentials for author and publisher)
-reliability (credibility of the source)
-timeliness (how up to date the info is)
-scope (the extent of your research)
ethical pitfalls
-avoid purposeful ambiguity
-avoid rumors and innuendos
-uphold unpopular ideas
-avoid hidden agendas
-avoid excessive and inappropriate emotional appeals
innuendo
veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not
four circumstances that create ethical concern
-deception
-manipulation
-confusion
-fallacies
fallacies
If a speaker realizes his/her logic will not hold up under scrutiny, he/she may appeal to audience emotions to disguise the deficit
name calling
involves linking a person or group with a negative symbol
Glittering Generalities
-rely on the audience's emotional responses to values such as home, country, and freedom
-manipulating the audience's response so that critical judgments about major issues are clouded in other areas is unethical
testimonials
the use of satisfied customers and celebrities to endorse a product in advertising
plain folks
-an effort to identify with the audience
-Speakers who present themselves as "plain folks" may be building an identification with their audience appropriately or they may be manipulating their listeners.
Bandwagoning
unethical speakers may convince their listeners to support their point of view by telling them that "everyone else" is already involved.
listening
-intentional
-requires effort and training
-interpretive process
-decode messages
-active
-considered THE MOST important communication skills
hearing
-can be accidental or purposeful
-automatic
-psychological process
-receive sounds
-passive
constructing meaning
the association of words and phrases with references or concepts previously experienced and established in one's mind
Responding to spoken verbal and accompanying nonverbal messages is
a reaction to what speakers say and the way they say it.
listening filters
help sort the confused mass of incoming messages into sensible, manageable information
selective attention
-determines which incoming messages we process at all.
-leads us to seek out and concentrate on communication that we find acceptable
selective interpretation
can lead us to alter message content to conform with our beliefs.
the listening process
-receiving
-understanding
-evaluation
-recalling
-responding
Receiving stage of listening
With all of the sounds we encounter, we must strategically select what we will receive.
challenges to receiving
-information overload
-speed of speaking and listening
-self-centered listening
-making time to listen
information overload
the number of incoming messages exceeds our ability to process them
speaking-listening gap
-We can listen much more rapidly than most people speak.
-Since we process speech at two to four times the rate most speakers are talking, we have a lot of time for our minds to wander.
self-centered listening
Focusing only on yourself�what you want from the message rather than what the speaker has to offer�distorts messages by not considering the speaker's motives
external distractions
consist of everything in your environment that could draw your attention away from the communicator's message
internal distractions
physical or psychological aspects of the listener that reduce focus on the communication
how to improve receiving
-reduce distractions
-maintain eye contact
direct eye contact
excellent way of improving your ability to receive communication
understanding stage of listening
To listen effectively, we must comprehend communication in the presenter's own terms.
challenges to understanding
-mutually assumed understanding
-confusing understanding with the argument
how to improve understanding
-suspend judgment
-paraphrase
-ask questions, even if only to yourself
-receiving vs. perceiving
mutually assumed understanding
We believe our messages are clear and rarely doubt the perfection of our listening skills; therefore, we always assume we have the correct informa- tion.
paraphrase
A paraphrase shows that you recognize not only the words someone says, but the emotional and cognitive substance of the message.
perception
refers to how we view ourselves and the world.
self-serving bias
accepting responsibility for whatever is good and blaming others for problems.
reception
involves physically getting messages
evaluation stage of listening
accepting responsibility for whatever is good and blaming others for problems.
challenges to evaluation
-polarized judgements
-evaluating people instead of performance
how to improve evaluations
-evaluate along many dimensions
-use "i" statements
polarized judgements
the greatest challenge to careful evaluation is the temptation to make sweeping overall judgments that oversimplify the value of the message
critical listening
Evaluate what the speaker is saying and decide on the value of the message
evaluating along many dimensions
to reach a more precise evaluation, break down the good/bad quality into several categories and expand your range of judgment.
I" statements
- i disagree with you
-i could not understand what you said
-i feel angry when i hear you say
you" statements
-you are wrong
-you speak unclearly
-you make me angry when you say
recalling stage of listening
encompasses remembering and using the information.
challenges to recalling
-there are too many messages and too little time
-use mnemonics to recall information
how to improve recalling
-connect the unknown with the known
-show as well as say
-use grouping and patterns
connecting the unknown with the known
-Unfamiliar information often presents problems because we don't know how it fits with our current knowledge
-the best way to cope with new information is to relate it to something you already know.
An effective listener tries to practice
-is able to act appropriately
-they demonstrate understanding
-recall includes knowing how to put information into practice
use grouping and patterns to
-break up the information into smaller chunks for easier recall
-recall will improve if you develop patterns that connect different bits of information
-rhyming, drawing, acronyms
responding stage of listening
-offering explicit verbal or nonverbal reactions to communication
-Take the time to acknowledge what was said and even allow for expansion on it.
challenges to responding
-false feedback
-conflicting responses
how to improve responding
-offer explicit reactions
-choose questions that build dialogue
building dialogue
a conversation where all communicators can participate fully and openly express themselves
active listening
being fully engaged in the speaker-listener relationship, using all the steps of the listening process, and taking deliberate actions to improve communication.
empathy
-the willingness to set aside our own agendas and understand reality as the other person does.
-required for active listening
sympathy
involves feeling sorry for someone
3 skills required for active listening
-attending behaviors (Nonverbal signals that signify you are attentive)
-verifying content (Listening for the substance of the message and letting the other person know you have heard the main ideas and facts.)
-listening for feelings
Listening as shared responsibility
-speakers and listeners share a relationship by affecting how each experiences the interaction.
-Speakers need to respond to reactions from the audience.
-Listeners incur the obligation to be assertive and take action to improve the communication situatio
listening to give advice
-Our ability to give good advice depends on our ability to listen carefully enough to diagnose what the other person needs from us.
-advice-giving is the last step in the process
listening in relationships
-tune in time
-expression of feeling
-empathetic listening
-summarizing what the other person said
-processing the conversation
-avoid accusations
how to become a better listener
-be mindful
-control obstacles
-reduce distractions
-maintain eye contact
-ask questions/paraphrase
-organize information
-suspend judgement
relational-oriented listener
someone who is comfortable listening to others express feelings and emotions
task-oriented listener
those who look at the overall structure of the message to see what action needs to be taken; they also like efficient, clear, and briefer messages
analytical-oriented listener
listeners who take into account the complex information, facts, and details
critical-oriented listener
listeners who evaluate the messages the speaker is giving
organization of ideas
the placement of lines of reasoning and supporting materials in a pattern that achieves your chosen general purpose and specific purpose by supporting your thesis.
introduction should
capture your audience's attention and indicate your intent
conclusion should
reinforces your message and brings your speech to a close.
the body of the speech should
includes your main points and supporting material that bolster your specific purpose and thesis statement
general purpose of speech
either to inform, persuade, or entertain
specific purpose of speech
focused statement that identifies exactly what a speaker wants to accomplish with a speech
thesis statement
a one sentence statement that sums up the major ideas of a speech
purposes of the introduction
-get the audience's attention
-introduce the subject
-give the audience a reason to listen
-establish credibility
factors of credibility
-competence: what you know
-character: who you are and why we should listen to you
how to establish credibility
-personal appearance
-movement/gestures
-look at audience personally and pleasantly
-establish eye contact with whole audience
-look briefly from one person to another
-use a lively voice
-strong delivery
-statement of qualifications
residual message
what you want your audience to remember after they have forgotten everything else in the speech
process of organizing the body of the speech
-selecting your main points
-support the main points
-choose the best organizational pattern
-create unity through the speech
topical
main points divide topic into logical, consistent subtopics
connectives
words or phrases that tie the speech ideas together
signposts
key ideas/words that tells your audience where you are in your speech
transitions (verbal/nonverbal)
-words that indicate that the speaker has finished one thought and is moving to another
-ex: in addition, in summary, in other words, therefore, facial expression, a pause
previews
-what is to come
-i will focus on the following three solutions...
summaries
-a recap of what has been said
-not that we have seen...
where should connectives be
-between intro and body
-between each main point
-between body and conclusion
equality pattern
-involves giving equal time to each point
-spend approximately the same time on each main point as you deliver the body of your speech
strongest point pattern
your first point would take about half of the time you devote to the body of your speech, the second point would be given about one-third, and your final point would receive the least
primacy effect
other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence
progressive pattern
presenting your least important point first and your most important point last.
recency effect
suggests people will remember most what they have just processed
chronological organization
-past-present-future sequence
-step by step sequence
spatial organization
the sequence of ideas moves from one physical point to another
cause and effect
the speaker can focus specifically on why something happened and what the consequences of the event or action were.
problem-solution organization
-present an audience with a problem and then examine one or more likely solutions.
-the goal is to persuade an audience that a problem still exists and to have listeners agree about how it can be effectively handled.
topical organizational pattern
-most frequently used
-the nature and scope of your topic dictate the pattern of your approach
transitions
-words, phrases, or sentences that tell your audience how ideas relate.
-critical because they clarify the direction of your speech by giving your audience a means to follow your organization.
internal previews
extended transitions that tell the audience, in general terms, what you will say next
internal summaries
follow a main point and act as reminders
planning the outline
-parallelism
-coordination
-subordination
-division
parallelism
-how sentences are phrased
-introduction and conclusion are related
-provides listeners with a sense of closure
coordination
-coordinate points are the main ideas
-should have supporting material
-each point should have the same significance
subordination
-support your main or coordinate points
-provide relevant supporting material, such as facts, statistics, examples, or testimony.
divison
points and sub-points are distinct and identifiable on your outline.
guidelines for constructing speaker's notes
-avoid overloading your outline
-include only necessary information
-reduce sentences to key phrases
-include transitions, but in abbreviated order
-notes must be legible
developing a conclusion
-summarize the speech
-reemphasize the centra ida in a memorable way
-restate the main ideas!
-provide closure/signal the end
-motivate the audience to respond
-refer to the introduction
elements of an introduction
-get audience's attention
-introduce the topic
-give the audience a reason to listen
-establish credibility
-tell the audience what you are going to tell them (main points/thesis)
plagiarism
presenting the words and ideas of others without crediting them
global plagiarism
taking an entire text from a single source and claiming is as your own
patchwork plagiarism
lacing a speech with compelling phrases that you find in a source but do not credit
what do you have to cite
-not common knowledge
-direct quotes
-opinions, assertions, or ideas of others
-statistics
-any non-original visual materials
purpose of citing sources verbally
-be ethical/not plagiarize
-increase credibility
-additional research
what to include for book citation
author
title
publication date
what to include for magazine/journal article
author
title
publication date
what to include for newspaper article citation
author
newspaper
publication date
what to include for interview citation
subject
credibility
mood of a speech
the overall feeling you hope to engender in your audience
tone of a speech
the emotional disposition of the speaker as the speech is being delivered
guidelines for forming an introduction
-prepare after the body of the speech
-make it creative and easy to follow
-communicate high energy by being well practiced
-engage audience nonverbally before you start
-consider time constraints and mood
common pitfalls of an introduction
-beginning with an apology
-being too brief or too long
-giving too much away
-reading extensively
-relying on shock tactics
-promising too much
-using unnecessary prefatory remarks
-using long-winded poems, quotations, and prose
-becoming someone else
-o
motivating listeners in a conclusion
-relate your topic to the listeners
-communicate a feeling
-broaden your message
Developing Memorable Conclusions
-thanking as transition
-call to action
-use a dramatic illusion
-conclude with a quotation
-include a metaphor that broadens the meaning of your speech
-conclude with humor
-encourage thought with a rhetorical question
-refer to your introduction
common pitfalls of conclusions
-don't use conclusion to introduce a new topic
-don't apologize
-don't end abruptly
-dont change mood or tone
-don't use phrases "in summary or in conclusion" except when you are actually at the end of your speech
-don't ask for questions
-don't ignore an
audience-centeredness
Making your intended audience central in your message formation
audience analysis
helps us to understand what we know or would like to know about the listeners
demographics
-include age, gender, race and ethnicity, education/knowledge, group affiliation, occupational group, socioeconomic status, religious background, political affiliation, and geographic identifiers.
-Depending on your general and specific purposes, certain
psychographics
include lifestyle choices, attitudes, beliefs, and values of your listeners.
gender
the perception of one's self as feminine or masculine
sex
biological differences, chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal, external sex organs
ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.
when considering AGE of the audience:
-avoid assumption about the average age of your audience
-focus on speech, not your age
-avoid dating yourself with references or language
when considering GENDER of the audience
-structure your speech so that you are inclusive
-avoid categorizing and stereotyping
-find ways to include men and women in the speech
when considering RACE/ETHNICITY of the audience
-As you develop your speech, we ask that you avoid invoking stereotypes related to race, ethnicity, or nationality, even if these groups are not present in your audience.
-A speaker should try to avoid being offensive or unfair by examining his/her langua
when considering education/knowledge of the audience
-Knowing the educational level of your audience will aid in the construction of your message
-Do not assume that expertise in one area necessarily means expertise in others.
-Be careful about assuming what your audience knows�and does not know� about tech
when considering group affiliation of the audience
-Listeners may identify themselves as members of formal and informal interest groups.
-avoid assuming that all members of a group have similar attitudes.
demographic audience analysis
-age
-gender
-race and ethnicity
-education knowledge
-group affiliation
-occupational groups
-socioeconomic status
-religion
-political affiliation
-geographic identifiers
psychographic analysis
refers to the behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and values of your listeners.
attitudes
predispositions to act in a particular way that influences our response to objects, events, and situations.
beliefs
-represents a mental and emotional acceptance of information
-judgments about the truth or the probability that a statement is correct
interest level and expectations of your audience
-Discovering the interest level in your topic and your audience's expectations helps you adapt to your audience
-Interest level often determines audience response.
accessing audience information
-using a questionnaire
-observing
-interviewing
fixed-alternative questions
limit responses to specific choices, yielding valuable information about such demographic factors as age, education, and income
advantages and disadvantages of fixed-alternative questions
-questions are easy to answer and analyze
-they avoid confusion
-they may force people to respond to a question when they are uncertain or have no opinion
using a questionnaire
-can determine the specific demographic characteristics of your listeners as well as their perceptions of you and your topic
-tell you how much knowledge your listeners have about your topic and the focus they would prefer in your speech.
scale questions
type of fixed-alternative question that ask people to respond to questions set up along a continuum
open-ended questions
audience members can respond however they wish
guidelines for survey questions
-avoid leading questions
-avoid ambiguity
-ask everyone the same question
-be aware of time constraints
avoiding leading questions
Try not to lead people to the response you desire through the wording of your question
Avoiding Ambiguity
When you use words that can be interpreted in different ways, you reduce the value of a question
observing and interviewing
-The information you gather from observing and interviewing is likely to be richer
-your message will be well targeted, personalized, and appropriate.
Creating the Speaker-Audience Connection
-get to the point quickly
-have confidence
-don't be above the people
-use humor
-get personal
-encourage participation
-examine other situational characteristics
-learn what the audience thought of your speech and adapt your speech for next time
situational audience analysis
includes a consideration of the time and place of your speech, the size of your audience, and the speaking occasion
if your audience seems confused
-repeat key points
-use an example to illustrate your point
-use visual aids
-slow down
-ask for feedback
if your audience seems to be disagreeing with your message
-provide additional data and evidence to support your point
-credibility, credentials, background
- rely less on stories and more on facts
if you audience seems inattentive or bored
-tell a story
-use an example the audience can relate to
-remind listeners why your message should be of interest to them
-eliminate abstract facts
-use appropriate humor
-make direct references to the audience
-invite them to participate
three-dimensional presentation aids
-objects
-models
-people
-animals
two dimensions presentation aids
photos, maps, graphs, charts, chalkboards, drawings and diagrams
computer generated presentation aids
powerpoint, prezi, anything on the computer
audiovisual presentations aids
youtube videos, dvd player, movies, clips, etc.
designing visual aids
-keep them simple
-incorporate necessary, but manageable information
-make them interesting, but not distracting
-consider font and color
-relevant and clear videos
advantages of presentational aids
-available
-engaging
-persuasive
-entertaining
-memorable
-clarity
-makes abstract ideas concrete
-helps organize ideas
disadvantages of presentational aids
-impersonal
-time consuming
-may shift attention away from the speaker
-potential for reductionism
-they do not guarantee an effective speech
displaying two-dimensional presentation aids
-chalk or dry-erase board
-poster board
-flip chart
-notepad
general criteria for presentational aids
-aid should add value to your presentation
-consider the safety of bringing an item to class (could be stolen or broken)
-consider ease of transportation getting the item to the classroom
-consider size of object and audience
principles for using presentation aids
-do not let your presentation distract your audience
-be aware of timing and pauses
-make sure equipment is working but be prepared for failure
-use multimedia presentations with careful planning and practice
Making and using computer-generated images
-choose an aid that fits your purpose, occasion, and audience
-emphasize only relevant points
- implement the rule of six- no more than 6 words per line and 6 lines per slide
-select appropriate design features
-avoid allowing your presentational aid to u
informative speech
a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding
a make a speech informational:
start with a clear, specific purpose signifying your intent.
speech of description
an informative speech intended to provide a clear picture of a place, event, person, or thing
speech of explanation
an informative speech intended to help an audience understand complicated, abstract, or unfamiliar concepts or subjects
speech of demonstration
focus on a process by describing the gradual changes that lead to a particular result.
goals of informative speaking
1. stimulate audience interest
2. increase audience understanding
3. assist audience retention
4. create a meaningful message the audience can relate to
5. make the speech memorable
stimulating audience interest
present relevant or personally useful information to your audience
increasing audience understanding
-use simple language, clear organization, examples, and visualization
-tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them
assisting audience retention
-use repetition, analogies, vivid descriptions
-appeal to a variety of learning styles (auditory, visual, print, kinesthetic)
guidelines for effective informative speeches
-consider the audience's needs and goals
-consider the audience's knowledge level
-capture attention and interest immediately
-sustain audience attention and interest by being creative, vivid, and enthusiast
-cite your oral sources accurately
-signpost ma
ethics of informative speaking
An informative speech requires you to assemble accurate, sound, and pertinent information that will enable you to tell your audience what you believe to be the truth.
stereotype
to place a person or group of persons into an inflexible, all-encompassing category
prejudice
-to "pre" judge
- often grows from stereotypes
-holding an opinion before you have facts in evidence
manuscript speaking
reading a speech from a prepared text
memorized speaking
delivering a speech word for word from memory without using notes
impromptu speaking
a type of public speaking in which the speaker has little or no time to prepare a speech
extemporaneous
-speaking from a written memorized outline
-general idea, but no the exact wording