Sufficiency Indicators
If, when, whenever, all, any, each, every
Necessity Indicators
Then, only, only if, only when, needs, requires, must
Only (What to watch out for?)
Only if, and only does not always immediately precede the necessary condition. FIND THE REFERENT of only
Replace with "If Not
Unless, until, without, except
Logic Game (Flow chart)
1) Read intro/ rules 2) Build set- up 3) symbolize rules 4) CHECK RULES X2 5) Identify any randoms 6) Make deductions 7) Time for scenarios 8) Attack the questions
Modality: Necessity
Must, Is/are, will, do/does, always
Modality: Probability
Probably, likely, usually
Modality: Possibility
May, might, could, can, occasionally
Quantification: Necessity
all, any, every (100%)
Quantification: Probability
most, majority (>50%)
Quantification: Possibility
some, many, few, several (>0%)
Logical force: Strong
will, must, is, are, do, does, always, all, any, every, almost all
Logical force: Moderate
probably, likely, usually, most of the time, majority of the time, most, majority
Logical force: Weak
may, might, can, could, often, sometimes, occasionally, significant number, several, many, few,some
Must be True
Definitely proven true by the information in the stimulus (incorrect answers could be false)
how to approach
- use only information present
- look for conditional statements
- pay close attention to the logical force of the propositions
If conditional
-di
~MBT
Very strongly supported by the information in the stimulus (doesn't absolutely need to be true)
how to approach
- use only information present
- look for conditional statements
- pay close attention to the logical force of the propositions
If conditional
MBF
Definitively proven false by the statements in the stimulus
how to approach
- use only information present
- look for conditional statements
- pay close attention to the logical force of the propositions
If conditional
-diagram
- anticipate valid inferenc
Main Point
The main conclusion of the argument
How to approach the stimulus
- look for key works that indicate premise (since, because) and conclusions (therefore, thus, hence, so, it follows that)
- look for words that indicate a shift in attitude (but, however)
-
Describe
An accurate description of the reasoning employed in the stimulus
how to approach the stimulus (one speaker)
-identify the conclusion and relevant premises
- look for one of the prevalent argument forms
- paraphrase how the argument supports the conclusio
Prevalent forms of argumentation (DESCRIBE)
Rejecting alternatives
-applying a general principle
-appealing to an authority
-using a counterexample
-making an analogy
-using a line of reasoning to draw an absurd conclusion
- proposing an alternate cause for an observed effect
- undermining a premis
Flaw
A description of the fallacy committed in the stimulus
How to approach stimulus:
- Identify the conclusion and premises
- Ask why the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises (keep in mind the prevalent fallacies)
- paraphrase the fallacy
Exclusivity
1) An argument will fail to establish a list of options that is exhaustive/ insufficiently eliminate some of the options
2) an argument will falsely assume that two options are exclusive (cannot have a combination of both)
Sampling
1) Sample gourd must be an accurate rep of the group it is ripping
2) Those surveyed have to a) understand the survey b) not have any motive to misrepresent
3) Any conclusions made from survey data must be intelligibly related to the survey questions
Composition
1) From the fact that a whole has a certain property, it concludes that all/ most/ some of the parts MUST as well
2) From the face that one/most/ all of the parts have a certain property it concludes that the whole must have these properties as well
Fallacy of Converse/ Inverse
a-->b conclude b -->a inverse a--> b conclude not a---> not b
Causation
Even if one thing applies another; it is not sufficient to prove that the first thing cause the second .
Correlation does not imply causation
1) Another element could be the cause = ( a. another thing may be responsible for the effect in question or b. an
Equivocation
1) Shift in meaning (meanings of key words shift in meaning)
2) Related, but distinct, concepts ( equivocate between two related, yet distance, concepts as though they are the same)
Comparison
Analogy- use the fact that 2 things have a property in common to imply that they must have one or more other properties in common.
2 items compared must be relevantly similar to each other
- Fallacy to make an analogy between two items that differ in cruc
Ad Hominem
1) Attack a person's character
2) Inconsistent behavior (hypocrites doesn't make the advice false)
Absence of Evidence
1) Failure to prove that a claim is false is taken as evidence that the claim is true
2) Failure to prove that a claim is true is taken as evidence that the claim is false
Circular Reasoning
When an arguments conclusion simply restates one or more premises
Percentage vs Amount
1) % cannot justify conclusions regarding definitive amounts
2) Definitive amounts cannot justify conclusions regarding %
Temporal
Simply because something was the case in the past does not imply that it is the case now or will be in the future
1) The attempt to draw definitive conclusions about one time period (past, present or future) from premises about another time person (past,
Perception vs Reality
1) Inappropriate Authority- it is a fallacy to rely on an authority when the topic in question is outside their area of expertise
2) Irrelevant opinions- fallacy to rely on the opinions of people when their opinions are irrelevant to the truth of the issu
Flaw- Logical Force
Modality (possible vs definite)
- the fact that something is possible or even probable, does not entail that it is certain
Quantification (all vs most vs some)
- some premises cannot justify most or all conclusions. most premises cannot justify all conclu
Parallel
An argument that has the same logical structure as the argument in the stimulus (same # of premises, same # of terms, same validity status and a conclusion with the same modality, quantifier and logical structure)
How to approach the stimulus
- identify t
Parallel flaw
An argument that commits the same fallacy that is committed in the stimulus
How to approach stimulus
- identify the conclusion and the relevant premises
- determine whether diagram
- characterize the flaw that is committed
If diagram:
- look for invalid a
Role
An accurate characterization of the role the specific statement play in the stimulus
Common incorrect answers:
characterization of other parts of the argument
characterization that could not be part of the stimulus (assumption)
Disagree/ Agree
A statement about which the two speakers have conflicting/ agreeing opinions
= statements that both speakers have an opinion about
Strengthen
New information that provides additional support for the conclusion drawn in the stimulus
How to approach
- identify the conclusion and relevant premises
- determine whether the conclusion asserts a causal relationship
- look for any flaws or assumptions
Weaken
New information that provides evidence against the conclusion drawn in the stimulus
How to approach
-identify the conclusion and the relevant premises
-determine whether the conclusion asserts a causal relationship
-look for flaws/ assumption
if the argum
Crux
A missing piece of information that would critically affect the validity of the argument
how to approach
- identify conclusion/ relevant premises
- determine whether the conclusion assets causal relationship
- look for assumption that could affect the val
Sufficient Assumption
An assumption that guarantees the conclusion in the stimulus is validly drawn (deal maker)
How to approach stimulus: 1) Identify the conclusion and the relevant premises
2) Look for conditional statements (diagram/ anticipate the missing relationship or i
Necessary
An assumption that must be true in order for the conclusion to be properly inferred (when negated, the correct answer invalidates the argument)
look for an equivocation between the premise and conclusion
identify other assumptions made in the argument
com
Sufficient Answers are often
1) strong 2) take the form of a conditional statement
answers can mix up the premise order
new in the conclusion-- will have to be in the answer
popular wrong answers- converse is really common new info in conclusion, new info can only be written A--> NOT
Necessary negate quantifiers
some- none, most-not most (>50%), all- not all some don't, anyone- someone
RC: Implication= Specific Reference
According to the passage, ...
The passage refers to each of the following EXCEPT:
MBT, ~MBT. Ask you to draw inferences based on information presented.
Correct answer must be supported by information in the passage
RC: Implication= Viewpoint
The passage suggests... would most likely to agree with one of the following statements?
Discern what proponent of an argument would be likely to agree or disagree with:
- Identify the passage structure, author's attitude
RC: Characterization= Main Point
Primary purpose of passage is to
Common wrong answers
1) says something the passage didn't say
2) too specific
3) author had attitude and doesn't reflect it in answer choice
RC: Characterization= Role/Organization
The primary function of the last paragraph of the passage is to?
Which one of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
Will explain what role it places
4/5 premise--> what conclusion does it support
For examples- what does it answer
RC: Characterization= Author's Attitude
Which one of the following most accurately describes the author's attitude
The AA always tends to be toward the center of the spectrum, more often they express partial disapproval or firm support
RC: Characterization= Parallel
Same as parallel L.R.
RC: Operation: Strengthen/ Weaken
Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the passage's position concerning ...
- causation claims? look for strong answers
RC: Title Questions
Some questions ask you to locate a title for the passage
- reference subject matter/ authors opinion if any
RC: Extension Questions
add info to end of passage
- relate to main idea
= does not open any huge new doors