aquatic
having to do with water. (derived from the Latin word aqua meaning water). See aquatic foraging.
aquatic foraging
a specialized subsistence pattern that concentrates on fish and/or marine mammal hunting. Aquatic foraging is usually a far more reliable and productive strategy for obtaining food than the diversified hunting and gathering of most foragers who live away
band
the kind of political system found among most foraging societies. It consists of a few families living together without formal leadership. As a result, bands are referred to as being simple acephalous (or headless) societies. There are no special integrat
clan
a group of people who claim unilineal descent from the same ancestor but who cannot specify all of the actual links. The ancestor is genealogically so remote that he or she is often thought of as a mythical being, animal, or plant. Clans usually consist o
cyclical round of migrations
seasonal migrations of foragers or pastoralists between different environments in their territories. This often involves migrations that take people from spring to summer camps and then to fall and finally winter ones. This cycle of migrations that is rep
diversified foraging
hunting and gathering subsistence pattern in which there is not a concentration of efforts in harvesting a small number of species. Rather, virtually all potential food sources in the environment are exploited. Most pedestrian foragers take a diversified
division of labor
referring to the jobs that are normally assigned to people based on such things as gender and age. In most foraging societies, large animal hunting is an occupation of adult males, while domestic tasks, child rearing, and plant food collecting are mostly
egalitarian
referring to societies in which all people are equal in terms of economic and political rights. Foraging bands are the most egalitarian societies. However, even in these societies, there are differences based on age and sometimes gender.
epidemic
the occurrence of a disease in a population in which it appears, rapidly spreads between people, reaches a high frequency, and then subsides. Contagious diseases such as influenza, measles, and AIDS follow this epidemic pattern.
equestrian
having to do with horses. (derived from the Latin word equus meaning horse). See equestrian foraging.
equestrian foraging
a specialized subsistence pattern in which horses are used extensively in hunting large game animals. Equestrian foragers evolved in only two areas of the world--the Great Plains of North America and the sparse grasslands of Southern Argentina. In both ca
ethnocentrism
the feeling that your own group's cultural traditions and values are correct and superior to all others. This is usually coupled with a generalized dislike and even contempt for people who have other cultural traditions. Ethnocentrism is universal in that
ethnography
a descriptive and usually interpretive study of an individual culture.
extended family
two or more nuclear families tied together by bonds of descent. Usually an extended family contains living relatives from three or more generations.
foragers
people who live in more or less isolated, small societies and obtain their food by foraging wild plants and hunting wild animals. Foragers generally have a passive dependence on what the environment contains. They do not plant crops and the only domestica
guanaco
a species of small wild camelids with reddish-brown fur that live mainly on the sparse grasslands of southern Argentina. Guanacos are closely related to the domesticated llamas, alpacas, and vicu�as of the Andes Mountains in western South America.
herbivorous
eating only vegetable foods. Animals that have this sort of diet are herbivores or vegetarians.
hierarchical society
a society that is divided into unequal social classes and individual statuses. There commonly is a ranking of classes and statuses in hierarchical societies such that those that are at the top of the ranking have greater power and wealth. Large intensive
horticulturalists
people who obtain most of their food by low intensity farming. This subsistence pattern involves at least part time planting and tending of domesticated food plants. Pigs, chickens, or other relatively small domesticated animals are often raised for food
hunters and gatherers
see foragers.
indigenous
referring to the native population of an area.
intensive agriculture
a subsistence pattern characterized by full-time farming in which large beasts of burden or highly mechanized farm equipment (e.g., rototillers and tractors) are used to prepare the land for planting and later to harvest crops. Intensive agriculture usual
large-scale farming
see intensive agriculture.
large-scale society
generally a society with cities, industry, intensive agriculture, and a complex international economy. Such societies have socio-economic classes and a government with hierarchies of officials. The importance of kinship is diminished in social, economic,
mechanized grain farming
intensive farming for the production of cereals (e.g., corn, wheat, oats) in which hundreds and even thousands of acres are planted, tended, and harvested by a small number of people using large machinery (e.g., tractors and combines). There usually are h
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Melanesia
New Guinea and other nearby islands in the Southwest Pacific Ocean. Indigenous people from this region are referred to as Melanesians.
Mesoamerica
Southern Mexico and northern Central America. This was the main center of early plant domestication and ancient civilizations in North and Central America.
mono-cropping
planting a crop of only one species in a farm field. This is a common practice with intensive agriculture. While this can be a highly efficient farming strategy, it results in crops that are more susceptible to being wiped out by insects and other parasit
multi-cropping
planting a farm field with more than one species. This is a common practice among horticulturalists. Multi-cropping reduces the chances of total crop failure due to insects and other parasites. However, it is far more labor intensive to plant, tend, and h
multinational corporation
a corporate business that has outgrown its national roots and identity as it became multinational with facilities in many countries and no overriding feeling of obligation or loyalty to any one of them. Such companies typically move their production facil
nomadism
see pastoral nomadism.
nuclear family
a family generally consisting of a man, woman, and their children. See extended family.
parasitic disease
a disease caused by an organism that lives on or in the body and derives its sustenance from it, usually without being any benefit to the host. Most parasitic diseases of humans in industrialized nations are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, o
pastoralists
people who make their living by tending herds of large animals. The species of animals vary with the region of the world, but they are all domesticated herbivores that normally live in herds and eat grasses or other abundant plant foods (e.g., cattle, hor
pastoral nomadism
traditional pastoralists who follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year. The timing and destinations of migrations are determined primarily by the needs of the herd animals for water and fodder. These nomadic societies do not crea
patrilineal descent
unilineal descent that follows the male line. With this pattern, people are related if they can trace descent through males to the same male ancestor. Both males and females inherit a patrilineal family membership but only males can pass it on to their de
pedestrian
having to do with walking. (derived from the Latin word pedester meaning "on foot"). See pedestrian foraging.
pedestrian foragers
people whose subsistence pattern involves diversified hunting and gathering on foot rather than horseback. The pedestrian hunting and gathering way of life was mobile. Most of these societies moved their camps several times a year and had temporary dwelli
plantation agriculture
large, labor-intensive farms that mostly produce fruit, sugar, fiber, or vegetable oil products for the international market. The laborers usually work for very low wages that keep them in poverty. Many of the plantations of Indonesia, the Philippines, Ce
polyandry
the marriage of one woman to several men at the same time. This is a rare type of polygamy. It usually takes the form of "fraternal polyandry", which is brothers sharing the same wife.
polygamy
the generic term for marriage to more than one spouse at the same time. It occurs as polygyny or, more rarely, polyandry.
polygyny
the marriage of one man to several women at the same time. This is the most common form of polygamy. It often takes the form of "sororal polygyny", which is two or more sisters married to the same man.
positive correlation
a strong association between two different phenomena such that when one is the present, the other is as well. For example, in the United States today, people who have college degrees usually earn more money during their lifetimes than do people who have o
reciprocity
the situation in which an individual gives something to another person and in the process sets up a relationship between them such that they are both obliged to give, receive, and ultimately repay gifts. These reciprocal exchanges tend to create a continu
shifting agriculture
the horticultural practice of shifting from one field to another when crop production drops due to the inevitable depletion of soil nutrients. Shifting agriculture is also referred to as "swidden cultivation" .
slash and burn
the method used by horticulturalists to clear fields of heavy vegetation in preparation for planting new crops. Brush and small trees are cut down and allowed to dry out in place. They are then burned. This simultaneously clears the field of all but large
small-scale farming
farming using horticultural techniques.
small-scale society
generally a society of a few dozen to several thousand people who live by foraging wild foods, herding domesticated animals, or non-intensive horticulture on the band or village level. Such societies lack cities as well as complex economies and government
specialized foraging
a foraging subsistence pattern in which a limited number of species are hunted or gathered. Aquatic and equestrian foragers usually are specialized in their food quest. Specialized foraging can be highly productive but is risky in environments that experi
subarctic
the area surrounding the arctic circle. In the Western Hemisphere, this includes the northern regions of Alaska and Canada. Subarctic also refers to the cold climates of these regions. Most subarctic regions are tundra.
subsistence base
the main sources of food used by a society. The term "subsistence base" is often used interchangeably with subsistence pattern.
subsistence pattern
the methods a society uses to obtain its food and other necessities (e.g., foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, and intensive agriculture). The term "subsistence pattern" is often used interchangeably with subsistence base.
temperate
referring to the regions of the world mostly in the middle latitudes where winter temperatures regularly fall below freezing and summers are warm. In the Northern Hemisphere, the temperate regions are south of the colder subarctic and north of the subtrop
third world
Societies that are underdeveloped.
totem
a mythical clan founding ancestor. Totem origins are so far back in time that they are often believed to be non-human. Totems are used as symbols of clans. When they are believed to be particular kinds of animals or plants, killing or eating them is usual
transhumance
a cyclical pattern of migrations made by some pastoralists that usually take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. This is seasonal migration between the same two locations in which they have regular encampm
transnational corporation
see multinational corporation.
tundra
treeless regions with permanently frozen soil. Tundra environments are found in the subarctic regions of the world and in some high mountains.
underdeveloped society
a society in which most of the people are persistently poor due to the way they are integrated into the world economic system. They usually provide cheap raw materials and labor for the rich, developed nations and purchase their manufactured goods at high
undeveloped society
a largely isolated society that has a low technological level but is economically self-reliant. They are not participants in the world economic system. Such societies mainly consist of indigenous peoples who have subsistence economies. By definition, unde
unilineal descent
tracing kinship only through a single line of ancestors, male or female--i.e., descent links are traced only through ancestors of one gender. See also patrilineal descent.