There are how many monosaccharides?
three
What are the three monosaccharides
maltose sucrose and lactose
what is maltose
two glucose units
What is sucrose
glucose + fructose
what is lactose
glucose + galactose
What links two monosaccharides together?
Condensation
what breaks a disaccharide in two?
Hydrolysis
what is glycogen
storage of energy in the body
what is Starch
Storage form of energy in a plant
Carbohydrate
One of the three macronutrients, a compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that is derived from plants and provides the energy.
Glucose
The most abundant sugar molecule, a monosaccharide generally found in combination with other sugars; the preferred source of energy for the brain and an important source of energy for all cells.
Photosynthesis
A process by which plants use sunlight to fuel a chemical reaction that combines carbon and water into glucose, which is then store in their cells.
Simple Carbohydrates
Commonly called sugar; a monosaccharide or disaccharide such as glucose.
Monosaccharide
The simplest of carbohydrates. Consists of one sugar molecule, the most common form of which is glucose.
Disaccharide
A carbohydrate compound consisting of two monosaccharide molecules joined together.
Fructose
The sweetest natural sugar; a monosaccharide that occurs in fruits and vegetables; also called levulose, or fruit sugar.
Fermentation
The anaerobic process in which an agent causes an organic substance to break down into simpler substances and results in the production of ATP.
Sucrose
A disaccharide composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule; sweeter than lactose or maltose.
Alpha bond
A type of chemical bond that can be digested by enzymes found in the human intestine.
Beta bond
A type of chemical bond that cannot be easily digested by enzymes in the human intestine.
Complex carbohydrate
A nutrient compound consisting of long chains of glucose molecules, such as starch, glycogen, and fiber.
Polysaccharide
A complex carbohydrate consisting of long chains of glucose.
Starch
A polysaccharide stored in plants; the storage form of glucose in plants.
Glycogen
A polysaccharide stored in animals; the storage form of glucose in animals.
Dietary fiber
The non-digestible carbohydrate parts of plants that form the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds.
Functional fiber
The non-digestible forms of carbohydrate that are extracted from plants or manufactured in the laboratory and have known health benefits.
Total fiber
The sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber.
Soluble fiber
Fibers that dissolve in water.
Viscous
Term referring to a gel-like consistency; these types of fibers form a gel when dissolved in water.
Insoluble fiber
Fibers that do not dissolve in water.
Salivary amylase
An enzyme in saliva that breaks starch into smaller particles and eventually into the disaccharide maltose.
Pancreatic amylase
An enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine that digests any remaining starch into maltose.
Maltase
A digestive enzyme that breaks maltose into glucose.
Sucrase
A digestive enzyme that breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Lactase
A digestive enzyme that breaks lactose into glucose and galactose.
Insulin
Hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to increase blood levels of glucose; facilitates uptake of glucose by body cells.
Glucagon
Hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to decreased blood levels of glucose; causes breakdown of liver stores of glycogen into glucose.
Gluconeogenesis
The generation of glucose from the breakdown of proteins into amino acids.
Ketosis
The process by which the breakdown of fat during fasting states results in the production of ketones.
Ketones
Substances produced during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate intake is insufficient to meet energy needs. Provide an alternative energy source for the brain when glucose levels are low.
Ketoacidosis
A condition in which excessive ketones are present in the blood, causing the blood to become very acidic, which alters basic body functions and damages tissues. Untreated it can be fatal. This condition is found in individuals with untreated diabetes mell
Hyperglycemia
A condition in which the blood glucose levels are higher than normal.
Diabetes
A chronic disease in which the body can no longer regulate glucose.
Type 1 Diabetes
A disorder in which the body cannot produce enough insulin.
Type 2 Diabetes
A progressive disorder in which body cells become less responsive to insulin.
Hypoglycemia
A condition marked by blood glucose levels that are below normal fasting levels.
Lactose Intolerance
A disorder in which the body does not produce sufficient lactase enzyme and therefore cannot digest foods that contain lactose, such as cow's milk.
Lipids
A diverse group of organic substances that are insoluble in ater, lipids include triglycerides, phosholipids, and sterols.
Triglyceride
A molecule consiting of three fatty acids attachd to a three carbon glycerol backbone.
Fatty Acids
Long chains of carbon atoms bound to each other as well as to hydrogen atoms.
Glycerol
An acohol composed of three carbon atoms; it is the backbon of a triglyceride molecule.
Short Chain Fatty Acid
Fatty acids fewer thatn six carbon atoms in length.
Medium Cain Fatty Acids
Fatty aids that are 6 to 12 carbon atoms in length.
Long-chain Fatty Acids
Fatty acids that are 14 or more carbon aoms in length.
Saturated Fatty Acids (SFAs)
Fatty acids that have no carbons joined together with a double bound; these types of fatty acids are generally solid a room temperature.
Monounsaturated Fatty Acis (MUFAs)
Fatty acids that ave 2 crbons in the chain bond to each other with one double bond; these types of fatty acids are generally liquid at room temperature.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acidss (PUFAs)
Fatty acids that have more than one double bond in the cain; thee tpes of fatty acidsae generally liquid at room tempeature.
Hydrogenation
The process of adding hydrogen to usaturated fatty acids, making them more saturated and thereby more solid at room temperature.
Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)
Fatty acids that must be consumed in the diet becaue they cannot be mae by the body. The 2 essentia fatty acids are linolei acid and alpa-linolenic acid.
Linoleic Acid
An essential fatty acid found in vegetable and nut oils; also known as omega-6 fatty acid.
Alpha-linoleic Acid
An essential fatty acid found in leafy green vegetables, flaxseed oil, soy oil, fish oil, and fish produts; an omega-3 fatty acid.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)
A metabolic derivative of alpha-linolenic acid.
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)
A metabolic derivative of alpha-linolenic acid; together with EPA, it appears to reduce the risk of heart disease.
Phospholipids
A type of lipid in which a fatty acid is combined with another compound that contains phosphate; unlike other lipids, phospholipids are soluble in water.
Sterols
A type of lipid found in foods and the body that has a ring structure; cholesterol is the most common sterol that occurs in our diets.
Micelle
A spherical compound made up of bile salts andbiliary phospholipids that transports lipid digestion products to th intestinal mucosal cell.
Lipoprotein
A spherical compound in which fat cluster in the center and phosphoipids and proteins form the outside of the sphere.
Chylomicron
A lipoprotein produced in the mucosal cell of the intestine; transports dietary fat out of the intestinal tract.
Lipoproten Lipase
An ezyme that sits on the outside of the cells an breaks apart triglycerides so that ther fatty acids can be removed an taken up by the cell.
Visible Fats
Fat we can see in our foods or see added to foods, such as butter, margarine, cream, shortening, alad dressings, chicken skin, and untrimmed fat on meat.
Invisible Fats
Fats that are hidden in foods, such as the fats found in baked goods, regular-fat dairy products, marbling in meat, and fried foods.
Cardiovascular Disease
A general term that refers toanormal conditions involving dysfunction of the heart and blood vessels; cardiovascular disease can reult in heart attack or stroke.
Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
A lipoprotein made in the liver and intestine that functions to transport endogenous lipids, especially triglycerides, of the tissues of the body.
Low-density Lipoprotein
A lipoprotei formed in the blood fro VLDLs that transports cholesterol to the cells of the body. Ofen calle the "bad hlesterol.
High-Density Lipoprotein
A lipoprotein made in te liver and releaed into the blood. HDLs function to transport cholesterol from the tissues back to the liver. Oftern called "good choleterol.
proteins
compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms arranged into a amino accid lined in a chain
amino acids
containing NITROGEN
building blocks of proteins , each containing an amino group, and acid group, a hydrogen atom and side group all attached to a central carbon
there can be up to 20 common amino acids
side groups can be glycine, alanine, aspartic cid an
dipeptide
two amino acids bonded together
di=two
peptide=amino acid
tripeptide
three amino acids bonded together
tri-three
polypeptide
many ten or more amino acids bonded together
poly-many
essential amino acids
there are 9 essential must be supplied by diet
sometime know as indispensable
conditionally essential acids
body uses essential amino acid phenlalanie to make tyrosin a non essentail, but if the diet fials to supply enough phenyalanie or the body cannot make the conversion they tyrosine becomes a conditional essential amino acid
peptide bonds
a bond that connects the acid end of one amino acid with the amino end of another, forming a link in a protein chain
two bonded together from a dipeptide (another name for a protein)
threee from a tripeptide (another name for a protein)
many from a polype
non essential
more then half the amino acids are nonessentia meaing the body can synthesize them for itself
sometime know as dispensable
denaturation
the change in a proteins shape and consequent loss of its function brought bout by heat , agitiation, acid, base, alcohol, heavy metals, or other agents
hemoglobin
the globular protein of the red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs tothe cells throughout the body
they uncoil and lose their shapes and lose their ability to function pst a certain point denaturation is irreversible
IE: hardening of an egg wh
summary 1
proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids, 9 essential . each amino acid contains an amino group, and acid group, a hydrogen atom and a distinctive side group, all attached to a central carbon. the distinctive sequence of amino acids in each protei
proteomics
the study of the bodys proteins is called proteomics
human genome
is a full set of chromosomes, including all the genes and associatd DNA
peptidase
a digestive enzyme that hydrolyes peptide bonds.
tripeptidse cleave tripeptides
dipeptidases cleave tripeptides
endopeptidases - cleave peptide bonds within the chain to create smaler fragments
exopeptidases cleave bonds at the ends to release free mino a
summary 2
digestion is facilitted mostyy by the stomach acid and enzymes which first denature dietary proteins then cleave hem inot smaller polypepitides and some amino acids.
pancreatic and intestinal enzymes split these polypeptides fruther to oligo, tri and dipe
pepsin
a gastric enzyme that hydrolyzes protein. pepsin is secreted in an inactive from, pepsinogen which is activated by hydrocholric acid in the stomach
pepsin cleaves proteins into smaller ones and some amino acids
ribosomes
protein making machinery, is where we make protein
DNA
Serves as a template (COPIES) to make stands of the messenger RNA
THE RNA attached its self to the protein making machinery of the ribosomes were translation occurs
transcription
the process of messenger RnA being made from a tmplate of DNA is now as TRANSCRIPTON
Translation
the process of messenger RNA directing the sequence of amino acids and synthesis or proteins .
sickle cell anemia
a hereditary from of anemia characterized by abnormal sickle or crescent shape red blood cells, symptns are precipitatd by dehydration and insufficent oxygen
- a sequencing error -IE protein hemoglobins
gene expression
the process by which a cell converts the genetic code into RNA and protein
summary 3
cells synthesize proteins according to the genetic information proided by the DNA in th enucleus of each cell. This information dictates the sequence in which amino acids are linked together to from a given protein.
sequencing errors occasionally occur, s
collagen kol-ah-jen
the protein from which connective tissues such as scars, tendons, ligaments, and the ondations of bones and teeth ar made.
matrix
the basic substance that give form to a developing structure, in th body, the formative cells from which teeh and bones grow
enzymes
proteins that faciltate chemical reactions without being changed in the process, protein catalysts.
catabolc
breaking down reactons releasing energy
anabolic
building up reactions using energy
what is the life span of the skin
30 days
edema (protein deficency)
the swelling of body tissue caused by excessive amounts of fluid in the interstital spaces seen in protein deficency
the protein related causes of edema include
excessive protein losses caused by inlammation and critical illnesses
inadequate protein synth
ACIDS
compounds that release hydrogens ions in a solution
bases
compounds that accept hydrogen ions in a solution
acidosis (assi-DOE-sis)
higher than normal acidity in th blood and body fluids
alkalosis (alka-LOE-sis)
higher then normal alkalinity (base) in the blood and body fluids
antigens
substances that elicit th formation of antibodies or an inflammation reaction from the immune system. a bacterium a virus , at toxin and a protein in food that causes allergy are all eamples of antigens
antibodies
large prteins of the blood and body fluids , produced by the immune system in resons to the invasion of the body by forign molecules (usually protens called antigens). antibodies combine with and inactivate the forign invaders thus protecting the body
immunity
the bodys ability to defend itself against diseases
deamination amino acids
removal of the amino (NH2) group from a compound such as a n amino acid.
2 products result rom deamnation one is ammonia the other is carbon structure without its amino group often a ketto acid
ammonia
a compound with the chemical formula NH3 produced during the deamination of amino acids
keto acid
an organic acid that contains a carbonyl group
they can be used for energy or for the production of glucose , ketones, cholesterol or fat
keto acit may also be used to make non essential amino acids (via transmination)
tranamination
the transfer of an amno group from one amino acid to a keto acid producing a new nonessential amino acid and a new keto acid
urea
the principal nitrogen-excretion product of protein metabolism 2 ammonia fragments are combined with carbon dioxide to from urea.
liver cells release urea into the blood , circulates , then passes through the kidneys the kidneys filter it out and excretio
limiting amino acids
the essential amino acid found in the sortest supply relative to the mounts needed for protein synthesis in the body
4 amino acids are most likely to be limitiing
lysine,
methionne
threonine
typtophan
complementary proteins
2 or more dietary porteins whose amino aid assortments omplement eah other in such a way that the amino acids mssing from one are supplied by the other.
ie black beans and rice
protein energy malnutrition (PEM)
a deficiency of protein , energy or both including kwashiorkor marasmus and instance in which they overlap
acute PEM
protein energy malnutrition caused by recent severe food restrictinos characterized in children by underwieght for height (wasting)
chroinic PEM
protein energy malnutrition caused by long term food dprivation characterized in children by short height for age
(stunting)
marasmus
dying away ,
severe depriation of ood over a long time (mostly in children 6 to 18 months old in overpopulatd imporverished areas
kwashiorkor
a from of pem that results from inadequate protein inteake and infecttions (common with chidren whom are less than 2 whos mothers have a new recent baby and start feed that one milk and not the other.