vitamins
potent, essential compounds that perform various bodily functions that promote growth and reproduction in addition to maintenance of health; organic; do not provide energy; two types: water soluble and fat soluble
water soluble vitamins
vitamins found in watery components of food; dissolve in water; fragile foods (less stable); low risk of toxicity; deficiency symptoms appear quickly; easily absorbed into blood and travels freely; daily intake recommended; work as coenzymes; types: folat
coenzyme
enzyme helper; small molecules that interact with enzymes and enable them to do their work; many are made from water-soluble vitamins
fat soluble vitamins
found in fats and oils of foods; dissolve in fat; stable in foods; absorbed from the digestive tract with the aid of fats in the diet and bile produced by the liver; stored in the liver and body fats; regular intake recommended; megadoses can build up to
megadose
dose of ten or more times the amount normally recommended
folate (folic acid)
coenzyme for the synthesis of DNA and formation of red blood cells; deficiency causes anemia; deficiency symptoms: fatigue, diarrhea, irritability, forgetfulness, headache, and lack of appetite; higher risk of deficiency during growth; helps prevent neura
anemia
blood is unable to deliver oxygen to the cells of the body; examples including a shortage of abnormality of the red blood cells
neural tube defects
malformations of the brain and/or spinal cord during embryonic development; can occur within two weeks of conception; two types: spina bifida and anencephaly
spina bifida
incomplete closing of bony casing around the spinal cord - leads to partial paralysis; the spinal cord protrudes from the back
anencephaly
major parts of the human brain are missing
Vitamin B12
important in the protection of nerve fibers; works closely with folate to produce red blood cells; deficiency: folate unable to build red blood cells = anemia; high levels of folate (1 mg) mask a deficiency which can cause nerve paralysis and damage; foun
intrinsic factor
a compound made in the stomach that is necessary for the body's absorption of vitamin B12
vitamin C
required for production of collagen; helps heal wounds; may fight chronic diseases by functioning as an antioxidant to stop/prevent chain reactions; need to consume more if you smoke; plays an insignificant role, if any, in preventing colds; found in oran
collagen
protein foundation material for bones, teeth, skin, tendons; the characteristic protein of connective tissue
antioxidant
prevents damage to the body as a result of chemical reactions that involve the use of oxygen; a substance that is "anti-oxygen"; prevent free radicals from attacking cells and causing damage by neutralizing the free radicals and converting them back into
free radicals
highly toxic compounds created as a result of chemical reactions that involve oxygen; unstable oxygen molecules; these reactions are essential to the body's ability to function, but lead to the creation of highly toxic compounds; environmental pollutants
scurvy
the vitamin C deficiency disease characterized by bleeding gums, tooth loss, and in severe cases, death
vitamin A
helps maintain epithelial tissue and vision; also involved in production of sperm, normal development of fetuses, immune response, hearing, taste, and growth; ~1 year's worth can be stored in the body (90% is stored in the liver) -- deficiency will not de
epithelial tissue
cells that form the outer surface of the body and line the body cavities and principal passageways
beta-carotene
orange colored pigment found in plants that converts to vitamin A in the body; converts slowly to vitamin A, so that excess amounts are not stored as vitamin A, but stored in fat deposits instead; member of the carotenoid family; antioxidant; vitamin A pr
carotenoids
a group of pigments (yellow, orange, and red) found in foods that have antioxidant properties; possess antioxidant properties and work with vitamins E and C in the body to protect against free-radical damage that leads to diseases of the respiratory tract
precursor
a compound that can be converted into another compound
vitamin D
major role in bone-making and bone-maintenance; assists in absorption of dietary calcium; makes calcium and phosphorus available in the blood to be deposited as the bones harden; body can synthesize it with the help of sunlight, regardless of dietary inta
osteomalacia
bones become soft, porous, and weak; occurs in adults; bowed legs and curved spine; most often in women whose diet lacks calcium, who get little exposure to the sun, and who go through several closely spaced pregnancies and prolonged periods of breastfeed
rickets
bone softening in children; a disease that occurs in children as a result of vitamin D deficiency; characterized by abnormal growth of bone, which in turn leads to bowed legs and an outward-bowed chest
homocysteine
chemical that is toxic to the blood vessels of the heart; increase in blood clot formation and damage to arterial walls, as well as raising the risk of suffering a heart attack or stroke; may be toxic for brain tissue and impair cognitive ability; want it
minerals
inorganic compounds found naturally in the earth's crust; naturally occurring, inorganic, chemical elements; serve as structural components of the body and are used in many vital body processes; do not contribute energy to the diet; required in the diet i
inorganic
being or composed of matter other than plant or animal; occur naturally in the earth's crust; this makes minerals different than vitamins
major minerals
an essential nutrient found in the human body in amounts greater than 5 g - needed in large amounts in daily diet; types: calcium & phosphorus
trace minerals
an essential nutrient found in the human body in amounts less than 5 g - needed in smaller amounts in diet; types: iron & iodine
calcium
most abundant mineral in the body; 99% of body's _____ is in bones; remaining 1% responsible for transmission of nerve impulses essential for muscle contractions (maintains the heartbeat), maintenance of blood pressure, blood clotting, and works as cofact
cofactor
a mineral element that, like a coenzyme, works with an enzyme to facilitate a chemical reaction
osteoporosis
gradual bone loss; the bones become fragile and porous
phosphorus
2nd most abundant mineral in the body; plays many key roles in the cells' use of energy nutrients; 85% bound with calcium in bone and teeth; part of DNA & RNA (genetic code material); many enzymes and the B vitamins active only when a ____ group is attack
iron
body's oxygen carrier when bound to hemoglobin; helps transport oxygen from lungs to tissues and thus permits the release of energy from fuels to do the cells' work; in every living cell; deficiency: anemia; deficiency symptoms: weakness, tiredness, heada
hemoglobin
protein in red blood cells
iron deficiency anemia
a reduction of the number and size of red blood cells and a loss of their color because of iron deficiency; caused by malnutrition or blood loss
heme iron
the iron-holding part of the hemoglobin protein; found in meat, fish, and poultry; more readily absorbed than nonheme iron
nonheme iron
the iron found in plant sources (plant and animal foods); take vitamin C for it to be better absorbed
iodine
part of thyroid hormones - regulate body temperature, metabolic rate, reproduction, and growth; the hormones enter every cell of the body to control the rate at which the cell uses oxygen and release energy; occurs in the body in an infinitesimal quantity
cretinism
severe mental and physical retardation of an infant caused by iodine deficiency during pregnancy
goiter
enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by iodine deficiency in adults
phytochemicals
nonnutritive substances found in plants (fruits, vegetables, and whole grains) that possess health-protective benefits; not essential nutrients (do not provide energy or building materials), but appear to help promote health and reduce risk for cancer, he
recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
average amount of a nutrient that is sufficient to meet the needs of nearly all (97-98%) of healthy individuals of a specific age and gender
adequate intake (AI)
average amount of a nutrient that appears to be adequate for individuals where there is not sufficient research to calculate an RDA
upper limit (UL)
the maximum amount of a nutrient that is unlikely to pose the risk of adverse health effects in healthy people when consumed on a daily basis
lycopene
found in tomato/tomato products; may help reduce risk of prostate and other cancers; phytochemical
tannin
found in grapes, red and white wine, & tea; acts as antioxidant; may inhibit enzymes that activate carcinogens; phytochemical
functional foods
foods that provide additional psychological and physiological benefit beyond that of meeting basic nutritional needs; contains 35% of daily value for calcium and 25% of daily value for vitamin D per serving; also a good source of vitamin C, folate, and po
alcohol
general term used to describe a group of organic chemicals with common properties; a clear, colorless, volatile liquid; a sedative and central nervous system depressant (physiologically); both "a tonic and a poison" - difference lies mostly in the dose; a
proof
a way of stating the percentage of alcohol in distilled liquor; approximately twice the percentage of alcohol by volume; EX: Alcohol that is 100 ____ = 50% alcohol
alcohol dehydrogenase
a liver enzyme that mediates the metabolism of alcohol; facilitates conversion of alcohol into acetaldehyde and water
acetaldehyde
a substance into which drinking alcohol (ethanol) is metabolized
tolerance
the decrease of effectiveness of a drug after a period of prolonged or heavy use; continued exposure to alcohol causes physiological adaptations that increase tolerance
metabolic tolerance
with continued exposure, alcohol is metabolized at a higher rate; increased efficiency of removing high levels of alcohol from the blood due to long-term exposure; may lead to more drinking and possible addiction; long term exposure to alcohol can increas
functional tolerance
actual change in sensitivity to a drug; often results in hallucinations and convulsions when alcohol is withheld; normal chemical and electrical functions of the nerve cells increase to counteract the inhibitory effects of alcohol exposure; increased nerv
retinal
compound in the eye responsible for vision in low light
hepatitis
inflammation and injury to the liver due to excess alcohol consumption; can lead to permanent liver damage if alcohol consumption continues
cirrhosis
scarring of liver tissue that interferes with blood flow and liver function; a chronic, degenerative disease of the liver in which the liver cells become infiltrated with fibrous tissue; blood flow through the liver is obstructed, causing back pressure an
pancreatitis
inflammation of the pancreas; produces digestive enzymes, insulin, and glucagon (trouble with blood sugar); "itis" = inflammation
overweight
weight between 10% and 20% above the desirable weight for height or a body mass index (BMI) of 25 through 29.9; the leading causes are excess energy intake and physical inactivity
obesity
weight 20% or more above the desirable weight for height, or a BMI of 30 or greater; must be defined by amount of body fat rather than by weight
underweight
weight 10% or more below the desirable weight for height, or a BMI of less than 18.5; problems: minimal body fat stores, decreased energy reserves during times of physiological stress or injury, menstrual irregularity, osteoporosis
Body mass index (BMI)
an index of a person's weight in relation to height that correlates with total body fat content; compared to standards for underweight, healthy, overweight, and obese; does not take into account body fat distribution -- may overestimate body fat in athlet
central obesity
excess fat on the abdomen and around the trunk (apple-shaped); typically men; at a greater risk for developing diabetes, hypertension, elevated levels of blood cholesterol, and heart disease than pear-shaped people, who store excess fat on the hips, thigh
hydrostatic (underwater) weighing
the less a person weighs underwater compared to the person's out-of-water weight, the greater the proportion of body fat (density of fat); fat is less dense (more buoyant) than lean tissue; the measure of density and volume
skinfold test
thickness of a fold of skin is measured using a caliper; back of the arm (triceps) and below shoulder (subscapular)
bioelectrical impedance
measures how quickly electrical current is conducted through the body; estimates the amount of body water (total body water), non-fat components of the body (fat-free mass), and degree of body fat (fat mass); the more fat one has, the more resistance this
waist circumference
a measure used to assess abdominal (visceral) fat; excess fat in the abdomen increases a person's risk of health problems; poses a greater health risk than excess fat in the hips and thighs; the extra abdominal fat crowds the organs and its proximity to t
basal metabolism
the sum total of all the chemical activities of the cells necessary to sustain life, exclusive of voluntary activities; that is, the ongoing activities of the cells when the body is at rest; this is the work that goes on all the time, without conscious aw
basal metabolism rate (BMR)
the rate at which the body spends energy to support its basal metabolism; accounts for the largest component of a person's daily energy (calorie) needs; 60-65% of how the body expends energy; rate body expends to support vital functions (at rest)
thermogenesis
digestion; lowest impact on calories; production of heat that occurs after eating; contributes to a rise in metabolic rate; supports ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport of food (nutrients); argument for frequent meals/snacks to increase thermic ef
physical activity
most valuable part of energy expenditure equation; varies according to body size (amount of muscle mass required), type of activity, volume/intensity of activity; most effective way to increase "energy out"; 25-35% if how the body expends energy
ob gene
produces a hormone (leptin); fat stores up: increase in leptin (decreased appetite and increased energy expenditure); fat stores down: decrease in leptin (increased appetite and decreased energy expenditure); overweight: defective _____ (decrease in lepti
leptin
tells the body to stop eating
fat cell theory
states that during the growing years, fat cells respond to overfeeding by producing additional fat cells; the number of fat cells eventually becomes relatively fixed, and overfeeding from this point on causes the body to enlarge existing fat cells; weight
lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
an enzyme located on the surface of fat cells that enables the cell to convert blood triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol to be pulled into the cell for reassembly and storage as body fat; the more ____, the more the body can pull triglycerides int
external cue theory
the theory that some people eat in response to such external factors as the presence of food or the time of day rather than to such internal factors as hunger
hunger
the physiological drive to find and eat food, experienced as an unpleasant sensation; programmed by hereditary (physiological)
appetite
the psychological desire to find and eat food, experienced as a pleasant sensation, often in the absence of hunger; influenced by learned responses that may cause us to ignore or over-respond to our hunger (psychological)
satiety
the feeling of fullness or satisfaction experienced following a meal