Superior:
Inferior:
above
below
Ventral/anterior:
Dorsal/posterior
owards the front of the body
towards the back of the body
medial
lateral
close to the midline of the body
away from the midline of the body
atomic position
Upright, facing front.
Palms forward, arms at the sides.
Feet parallel.
planes of division
sagittal
frontal
transverse
Sagittal: from front to back, dividing body into left and right parts
Frontal: from left to right, dividing body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse: horizontally, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts
body cavities
Dorsal:
Cranial cavity
Spinal cavity
ventral
Thoracic cavity (includes: heart, lungs)
Abdominopelvic cavity is further divided into the abdominal and pelvic cavities
Abdominal Cavity: Stomach, most of the intestines, the kidneys, the liver, the spleen, th
anatomy
study of body structure
physiology
study of how the body functions
disease
anything that upsets the normal structure or working of the body
pathology
the study of diseases
integumentary system
the skin and associated body structures
Includes hair, the nails, sweat and oil glands
skeletal system
206 bones and the joints between them
Axial vs appendicular
muscular system
includes muscles that are attached to bones.
Skeletal muscle
nervous system
Directs the body's responses to external and internal stimuli.
Brain, spinal cord and nerves.
endocrine system
Endocrine glands produce hormones which regulate body activities
cardiovascular system
heart and blood vessels make up the system that pumps blood to all body tissues
lymphatic system
plays important role in immunity.
Aid in fluid regulation
respiratory system
includes the lungs and the passages leading to and from the lungs (gas exchange)
reprodcutive system
includes the external sex organs and all relates internal structures
digestive system
include mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, and pancreas
urinary system
to rid the body of waste products and excess water
ATP
Adenosine TriPhosphate***
A molecule that carries energy
homeostatis
maintaining of stable balance within the body.
negative feedback
Reverses any upwards or downwards shifts.
fluid balance
extracellular and intracellular
elements
the substances from which all matter is made.
what is 96% of the human body made of
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen
difference between covalent and ionic bonds
covalent shares, ionic gives
ions
atoms or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge
difference between cation and anion
cation (+) anion (-)
mxture
blend of 2 or more substances
solution
component substances remain evenly distributed (i.e. salt water) - it is homogeneous
suspension
settling occurs, particles are large and heavy. (red blood cells in blood plasma) & heterogeneous.
acids
lower than 7 on ph scale
bases
higher than 7 on ph scale
buffers
important in maintaining stability of body fluids.
form a system that prevents sharp changes in hydrogen ion concentration.
organic compounds contain
carbon
carbohydrates
simple sugars called monosaccharides, molecules made from simple sugars linked together.
lipids
Made from glycerol. Typically found as fat in the body.
phospholipids
contain phosphorous. These lipids make up the cell membrane.
amino acids are the building blocks of ..
protein
enzymes
Serve as catalysts which speed the rate of chemical reactions
plasma membrane
The outer limit of the cell, or cell membrane.
Made up of phospholipids, some molecules of cholesterol are located between the phospholipids.
Proteins float within the phospholipid bilayer.
Act as receptors for materials coming to the cell.
Some act to mo
cytoplasm
substance that fills the cells and holds all the contents
cytosol
liquid portion of the cytoplasm (a suspension of nutrients, minerals, enzymes and other specialized material in water
organelles
little organs" that form different structures are also found in the cytoplasm
control center" of cell, contains the genetic material.
nucleus
nucleolus job is to
assemble ribosomes which in turn manufacture proteins.
mitochondria
large organelles, round or bean shaped. Inside the mitochondria the energy from the nutrients is converted to energy for the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate or ATP.
ll
golgi apparatus
formulates mucous, sorting and modifying for export from the cell
endoplasmic reticulum
network of membranes located between the nuclear membrane and plasma membrane
differnce between smooth ER and rough ER
rough ER has ribosomes
ribosomes
formation of proteins occurs on ribosome
lysosomes
contain digestive enzymes. Destroy old and damaged cells
centrioles
rod-shaped bodies near the nucleus that function in cell division.
vesicles
membrane bound bubbles used for storage and to move materials in and out of the cell
cilia
small hairlike projections that wave, creating movement of the fluid around the cell (respiratory tract and female reproductive tract)
flagellum
long, whiplike extension from the cell.
Only found in sperm in the human body
difference between dna rna
dna is double helix
thymine is replaced by uracil
DNA: composed of Deoxyribonucleic acid
Organized into chromosomes within the nucleus. Is double stranded and coiled into a double helix
Subunits: four nucleotides;
adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
(
translation is
DNA uncoils into single strands
RNA and DNA nucleotide pairing occurs
Eg. If a single strand of DNA was A,T,G,C, the RNA would pair up to the DNA to read U,A,C,G
mRNA leaves the cell and moves to the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome
mRNA: travels to t
diffusion
the constant movement of molecules from a region of relatively high concentration to one of lower concentration.
osmosis
the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane.
filtration
is the passage of water containing dissolved materials through a membrane as a result of a mechanical "pushing" force.
active transport
molecules that travel against the natural flow.
This movement requires ATP and proteins in the cell membranes that act as transporters for the molecules.
Allows the cell to take in what it needs for the surrounding fluids and release materials from the ce
endo
exo
phago
pino
cytosis
bulk movement of materials INTO the cell
is the engulfing of relatively large particles by the cell membrane and the movement of these particles into the cell
Droplets of fluid are engulfed by the cell membrane. "Cell drinking"
movement of materials OUT o
staegs of mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
meiotsis occurs in
Produces 4 haploid daughter cells
Hereditary material is exchanged
Sperm cells and egg cells are made (gametes)
tissue
Groups of cells, similar in structure, arrange in a characteristic pattern, and specialized for the performance of specific tasks
epithelial tissue
covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.
It forms the lining of the intestinal tract, the respiratory and urinary passages, the blood vessels, the uterus and other body cavities.
It is the main tissue of the outer layer of the skin.
It is classi
connective tissue
supports and forms the framework of all parts of the body.
muscle tissue
contracts and produces movement
nervous tissue
conducts nerve impulses.
structure - simple
cells arranged in a single layer.
structure - stratified
arranged in many layers
structure transitional
special wrinkled, crepe-like tissue, capable of great expansion yet capable of returning to their original shape.
structure stratifies squamous epithilium
many layers function well in areas of wear and tear
glands
A gland is an organ specialized to produce a substance that is sent out to other parts of the body.
edocrine glands
ductless
exocrine glands
have ducts
types of connective tissue
Circulating connective tissue:
fluid, in a liquid matrix. Eg. Blood, lymph
Generalized Connective Tissue:
provides support and protection
Denser connective tissue
like tendons, ligaments
Structural connective tissue: cartilage and bone
loose conenctie tissue
soft/semiliquid consistency.
Areolar: "space"
soft matrix with cells and fibers inside.
Found in membranes and around vessels and organs.
Adipose: adipocytes can store lots of fat as a reserve for the body.
Provides heat and padding for our organs and joi
dense connective tissue
tissues with many fibers. Strong and flexible - made up of collagen.
Three types:
Irregular Dense: mostly collagen in a random arrangement.
Covers kidneys, liver, glands
Regular Dense: mostly collagen, arranged parallel to each other. Can be pulled in one
structural connective tissue
Strong, solid - it is the basis for support.
Cartilage: strong and flexible, used as a shock absorber and as a bearing surface that reduces friction between moving parts.
Gristle is the tough elastic, translucent material that covers the end of the long b
muscle tissue
Skeletal Muscles: works with tendons and bones to move the body. Also known as voluntary muscle. (it can be made to contract by conscious thought.
Cardiac muscle: forms the bulk of the heart wall. Also known as myocardium.
Smooth muscle: also known as vis
nervous tissue
Brain: center of all activity within the body. Each structure in the body is connected to the brain by the nerves.
myelin
some axons are insulated and protected by myelin.
endrites
carries messages to the nerve cell body.
axons
carries impulses away from the nerve cell body
neuron
The basic unit of the nervous system.
membranes
Thin sheets of tissues
serous membrane
line the walls of body cavities and are folded back onto the surface of internal organs, forming the outermost layer.
line the closed ventral cavities and do not communicate with the outside of the body.
They secrete a thin watery lubricant that allows or
mucous mebrane
line tubes and other spaces that open to the outside of the body.
Secrete mucus.
Form extensive linings in the digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive systems.
Some cells have cilia as in the nasal passages. Others don't.
cutaneous membrane
the skin
connective tissue membrane
Synovial Membranes: thin connective tissues that line the joint cavities. They secrete a lubricant to reduce friction between the ends of bones. This permits movement.
Meninges: several layers of membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.
Fascia: fibro
atrophy
a decrease in the size of cells, resulting in a reduced tissue mass
hyperplasia
an increase number of cells resulting in an enlarged tissue mass.
metaplasia
occurs when one mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type.
dysplasia
term applied to tissue in which the cells vary in size and shape.
Pap smear (Papanicolaou test on cervical cells)
anaplasia
refers to cells that are undifferentiated and have variable nuclei and cell structures.
neoplasm
new growth. Also commonly called a tumor.
Tumors are of two types, benign and malignant.
hypertrophy
an increase in the size of individual cells increased tissue mass
Benign tumors
do not necessarily become malignant.
Usually considered less serious because they do not spread, unless they are located in areas such as the brain.
The benign tumor is often encapsulated and expands but often does not spread.
malignant tumor
Usually made up of undifferentiated, nonfunctional cells which tend to reproduce more rapidly than normal. They infiltrate or spread into surrounding tissue and easily break away to other tissues.
Metastasis means spread to distant sites by blood or lymph