The primary response of T-cell differentiation in cell-mediated immunity is the production of______cells.
-memory
-Helper T
-Suppressor T
-Plasma
-None of the choices are correct
?
None of the choices are correct
The primary responsabilities of the lymphocytes in the lymphatic system are to respond to the presence of:
-Invading pathogens
-Abnormal body cells
-Foreign particles
-A,B,C are correct
-None of the choices are correct
A,B,C are correct
Name all the components of the lymphoid system.
a. A lymph, a fluid that resembles plasma but contains a much lower concentration of suspended proteins.
b. A network of lymphatic vessels, often called lymphatics, which begin in peripheral tissues and connect to veins.
c. An array of lymphoid tissues an
Primary function of the lymphoid system.
- To produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes that provide defense against infections and other environmental hazards (in lymphoid tissues & organs {SPLEEN, THYMUS, REDBONE MARROW})
- The return of fluid & solutes from peripheral tissues to the blood
lymphoid system
a. T cells
b. B cells
c. NK (natural killer) cells
Body's nonspecific defenses.
- A defense that are present at birth. They include physical barriers, phagocytic cells, immune surveillance, interferon, complement, inflammation, and fever.
Lymphocytes are said to provide specific defense known as -----------response.
IMMUNE
The ability to resist infection and diseases through the activation of specific defenses is known as
IMMUNITY
The smallest lymphatic vessels are known as -------------------- ------------------------
Lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic capillaries in the small intestine are called ---------
Lacteals
Lacteals are important in the transport of --------absorved by the digestive tract.
Lipids
What is the cisterna chyli?
- The base of the thoracic duct is an expanded, sac-like chamber called cisterna chyli. The cisterns chyli receives lymph from the inferior part of the abdomen, the pelvis, and the lower limbs by way of the right and left lumbar trunks and the intestinal
The thoracic duct receives lymph from------
- The body inferior to the diaphragm and from the left side of the body superior to the diaphragm.
The thoracic duct empties into the ------------
left subclavian vein
The right lymphatic duct delivers lymph from the---------
- A right side of the body superior to the diaphragm.
The right lymphatic duct empties into the ------
- It is formed by the merging of the right jugular, right subclavian & right bronco-mediastinal trunks near to the right clavicle
- It delivers the lymph from the right side of the body superior to the diaphragm
- Right subclavian vein
What is lymphedema?
- Blockage of the lymphatic drainage from a limb produces lymphedema. In this condition, interstitial fluids accumulate and the limbs gradually becomes swollen and grossly distended. This causes severe swelling and interference with immune function.
Types of lymphocytes.
a. T (thymus-dependent) cells about 80 of circulating lymphocytes
- Lymphocytes T: Four main types -Cytotoxic T, helper T, Suppressor T, Memory T)
b. B (Bone marrow-derived) cells 10-15 of circulating lymphocytes. Plasma cells-antibodies production.
c. NK
Characteristics of the lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes T:
a. Cytotoxic T: Destroy foreign and virus-infected cells by direct contact, responsible for cell-mediated immunity
b. Memory T: Form in response to foreign substances and remain in the body to provide immunity c
. Helper T: (Regulatory)- Ac
Name the organs and tissues involved in lymphopoiesis
a. Lymphocyte stem cells originate in the bone marrow,
b. Lymphocyte production: occurs in bone marrow, thymus, and peripheral lymphoid tissues.
c. 2 types of lymphocytes stem cells in the bone marrow, one stays in the bone marrow and gives way to B and N
Where are found the lymphocytes?
a. Red bone Marrow
b. Thymus: organ that generates a population of mature T cells capable of protecting the body from pathogens
c. Peripheral lymph tissues
What are the Peyer Patches and where are located?
- Fused lymphoid nodules that destroy bacteria and other pathogens, located in the ileum of the small intestine and appendix.
What are the tonsils? Name them and explain the location of each one.
a. 5 large nodules that form a ring to the entrance of the pharynx, paired palatine, paired lingual, and adenoid. Collect and destroy pathogens entering by air or food.
b. Palatine: either side of the posterior end of oral cavity
c. Lingual: base of the t
What is tonsillitis?
- Inflammation of the tonsils typically caused by a viral infection.
What are the lymph nodes?
a. Kidney shaped organs of the lymphatic system. Major sites of B and T lymphocytes. Function: They filter/purify the lymph before returning it to venous circulation, removing 99% of antigens, act as a filter for foreign particles.
Function of the lymph nodes.
- They filter/purify the lymph before returning it to venous circulation, removing 99% of antigens, act as a filter for foreign particles.
Location of the largest lymph nodes.
a. Cervical
b. Axillary
. Inguinal regions
What is a lymphadenopathy?
- A condition of chronically enlarged lymph nodes due to bacterial or viral infection, endocrine disorders, or cancers.
thymus
- Mediastinum, posterior to sternum
- 2-lobes[R&]
- Septae: divides the lobes into lobules
- Cortex: it contains reticular epithelial cells
- they maintain the blood-thymus barrier
- they secrete thymic hormones that stimulates the stem cell division & T
The gradual decrease in the size and secretory abilities of the thymus may make elderly individuals more susceptible to diseases (true or false)
TRUE
. The largest single collection of lymphoid tissue is located in the ----
SPLEEN
In the red pulp of spleen there are normal components of circulating blood plus abundant fixed and free macrophages (true or false)
True
White pulp is dominated by lymphocytes (true or false)
False
A severely ruptured spleen is removed in a process called a ----
splenectomy
Body defenses can be sorted into two general categories
ADAPTIVE (SPECIFIC)-- and ----INNATE (NONSPECIFIC)------ defenses.
Defense of the body against a particular pathogen is provided by
Immune response
Name the body's nonspecific defenses.
-skin
-tears
-fever
necrosis
the tissue destruction that occurs after cells have been injured or destryed
Pus
Debris, fluid, dead and dying cells, and necrotic tissue space
What is an abscess?
An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space
- Adaptive (specific Immunity):
Adaptive immunity is not present at birth. You acquire immunity to a specific antigen only when you have been exposed to that antigen or receive antibodies from another source
Active:
develops in response to antigen exposure
b. 1. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Normally begins to develop after birth. It continues to build as you encounter "new" pathogens or other antigens. You might compare this process to the development of a child's vocabulary
2. Artificial Induced Active Immunity
Develops after administration of an antigen to prevent a disease.
passive
Produced by transfer of antibodies from another source.
Naturally acquired Passive
A baby receives antibodies from the mother, either during gestation or in early infancy through breast milk.
Artificially induced passive immunity
: a person receives antibodies to fight infection or prevent disease. For example, someone that has been bitten by a rabid animal gets injections containing antibodies against the rabies virus.
4 general properties of immunity?
a. Specificity: Activated by and responds to a specific antigen
b. Versatility: ready to confront any antigen it has encountered
c. Memory: "remembers" any antigen it has encountered
d. Tolerance: responds to foreign substances by ignores normal tissues p
B cells can differentiate into plasma cells which are responsible for the production of ------------------
----Antibodies----
. Antibody-mediated immunity is also known as humoral (liquid) immunity because antibodies occur in body fluids (true or false)
true
Cytotoxic T cells which attack foreign cells or body cells infected by viruses. Their attack commonly involves direct contact. These lymphocytes are the primary cells involved in the production of cell-mediated immunity or cellular immunity (true or false
true
NK cells are responsible for? immunological surveillance (True or false)
true
Inflamation
- It's the body's response to injury. It works to heal wounds, but it also can play role in some chronic diseases. It's the body's attempt to heal itself after an injury; defend against foreign invaders, such as viruses and bacteria and repair damaged tis
Respiratory System
...
Organs of the upper respiratory system
a. External nose
b. Nasal cavity
c. Paranasal sinuses
d. Pharynx (throat)
- Function: these passageways filter, warmth, and humidify incoming air. Protecting the more delicate surfaces of the lower Resp. Syst.
Organs of the lower respiratory system.
a. Larynx (voice box)
b. Trachea (windpipe)
c. Bronchi
d. Bronchioles
e. Alveoli of the lungs
3. Functions of the respiratory system.
Functions:
1. Providing and extensive surface area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood.
2. Moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs along the respiratory passageways.
3. Protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, tem
-Respiratory System Def:
is composed of structures involved in ventilation (providing air) and gas exchange.
Conducting portion of the respiratory tract.
- The conducting portion of the respiratory tract begins at the entrance to the nasal cavity and extends through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles.
- The respiratory system can be separated into a conducting and a respiratory p
Respiratory portion.
- The respiratory portion of the tract includes the smallest, thinnest bronchioles and associated alveoli, air-filled pockets within the lungs where gas exchange between air and blood takes place.
The conducting of the Respiratory system is lined by a ------------------- membrane.
MUCUS
Explain the Respiratory defense system.
- A series of filtration mechanisms that make the respiratory defense system prevent such contamination.
Along much of the resp. tract, mucus cells in the epithelium and mucus glands in the lamina propria produce sticky mucus that bathes exposed surfaces.
The nostrils or -------- ------- open into the nasal cavity.
EXTERNAL NARES
What is the nasal vestibule?
The space contained within the flexible tissue of the nose
Components of the nasal septum.
- Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, the vomer, and the cartilage.
Name the paranasal sinuses. Function.
- The paranasal sinuses are air-filled extensions of the respiratory part of the nasal cavity. There are 4 paired sinuses, named according to the bone in which they are located; 1. Maxillary, 2. Frontal, 3. Sphenoid, and 4th ethmoid.
- Function: The paran
The function of the superior, middle and inferior meatuses.
- Inferior is responsible for the majority of airflow direction, humidification, heating, and filtering of air inhaled through the nose.
- Middle meatus, act as buffers to protect the sinuses from coming in direct contact with pressurized nasal airflow
-
The internal nares connect the nasal cavity with the
Nasopharynx
Functions of the nasal cavity.
- The function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisturize, and filter air entering the body before it reaches the lungs. Hairs and mucus lining the nasal cavity help to trap dust, mold, pollen and other environmental contaminants before they can reach the
How is the air filtered, warmed and humidified before entering the lungs?
- The lungs and the respiratory system allow oxygen in the air to be taken into the body, while also enabling the body to get rid of carbon dioxide in the breathed out. As air is inhaled, the mucus membranes of the nose and mouth warm and humidify the air
Nasopharynx, location. Function.
a. The nasopharynx id the superior portion of the pharynx. It is connected to the posterior portion of the nasal cavity through the internal nares. The soft palate separates it from the oral cavity. The nasopharynx is lined by the same pseudostratified ci
The posterior part of the oral cavity communicates directly with the ------
OROPHARYNX
Oropharynx, location. Function
a. The part of the pharynx that lies between the soft palate and the hyoid bone AND EXTENDS FROM OVULA (SOFT PALATE) TO EPIGLOTTIS
b. The major function of the oropharynx is swallowing. There are 2 phases to swallowing, where the Oropharynx is involved in
Laryngopharynx. location. Function
a. Found between the hyoid bone and the larynx and esophagus where both food and air pass.
b. Helps guide food and air where to go and is a part of the pharynx.
Where are the palatine tonsils?
a. Two lymphatic tissue masses commonly referred to as Tonsils. There is one located on each side of the oral pharynx, in the back of the throat.
Where is the pharyngeal tonsil?
a. Also called adenoids, it is a mass of lymphatic tissue, similar to the (palatine) tonsils, that is attached to the back wall of the nasal pharynx located at the upper part of the throat opening into the nasal cavity proper.
The auditory tubes
a. Also called the Eustachian tube, opens when we swallow, yawn or chew. This allows air to flow into the middle ear and any mucus to flow out. This keeps the air pressure equal in either side of the eardrum.
What is the glottis?
The part of the larynx consisting of the vocal cords and the slit-like opening between them. It affects voice modulation through expansion or contraction.
Name the cartilage that covers the opening of the larynx during swallowing.
. Epiglottis
The prominence on the anterior side of the ---------------- cartilage is Adam's apple.
a. Thyroid.
b. Adam's apple is also known as the laryngeal prominence
Describe the cricoid cartilage.
a. the ring-shaped cartilage of the larynx which provides attachments for the cricothyroid muscle and ligaments involved in opening and closing the airway and in speech production
The vocal folds that are involved in the production of sound are known as ----------------
a. True vocal chords.
b. The true vocal folds are the more inferior and are where sound is actually produced. The space or gap between the two vocal cords is known as the Rima glottides. The false vocal folds are located at the inferior edge of the vestib
What is phonation?
Means making sound
The trachea is also known as the ----
windpipe
The trachea starts at the level of C6 and ends at the level of T 5 where it branches to form the right and left --------------------------- -------------------------
a. Primary bronchi (left bronchus and right bronchus)
Describe trachealis cartilages. The shape? of the tracheal cartilages
- Trachea or Wind Pipe: It is an air passageway, formed by a tube that extends from the cricoid cartilage down into the mediastinum, and in front of the esophagus. It branches into left and right primary bronchi at the mid thorax. It is flexible and mobil
Location of the trachealis muscle.
Location of the trachealis muscle.
What is the carina?
internal ridge between opening of bronchi; divide into right and left bronchioles
Differences between the right and left primary bronchi.
- The left and right primary bronchi are outside the lungs and thus they are called extrapulmonary bronchi, the rest of the bronchi that are within the lungs are called intrapulmonary bronchi. The primary bronchi divide into secondary or lobar bronchi, be
If food accidentally enters the bronchi, in which bronchus(left or right ) is it more likely to lodge.
- Objects are more likely to be lodged in the right bronchus because it is slightly larger and more vertical than the left bronchus.
What is the hilum of the lung.
- is a groove that allows passage of the primary bronchi, pulmonary vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.
Describe the lobes and fissures. How many lobes are there in the right and in the left lung?
- Lobes: the lungs are divided into big segments called lobes that are separated by deep fissures. The right lung is divided into 3 lobes, superior, middle, and inferior by a horizontal and an oblique fissure. The right lung is broader than the left lung,
How many secondary bronchi are there on the right and in the left lung? why?
There are 3 secondary bronchi in the right lung and 2 secondary bronchi in the left lung because
- (Secondary bronchi are also termed, lobular bronchi)
The tertiary bronchi are also known as:
Segmental bronchi
-Tertiary bronchi eventually branch into tiny microscopic bronchioles
What is bronchitis?
Inflammation of the bronchi
What is bronchodilation?
The effect of sympathetic activation on the bronchioles leads to the enlargement of the diameter of the airway
What is bronchoconstriction?
The effect of parasympathetic activation on the bronchioles, leads to a reduction in the diameter of the airway, also takes place during allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis, in response to histamine released by activated mast cells in the basophils
Name the serous sac or membrane that covers the lungs.
The pleura
- Describe the layers of the pleura.
The pleura has two layers:
1. The parietal pleura that covers the inner surface of the thoracic wall and extends over the diaphragm and mediastinum.
2. The visceral pleura that covers the outer surfaces of t
What is hypoxia?
- Is a condition where not enough oxygen makes it to the cells and tissues that makes it to the cells and tissues that make up your body. Places severe limits on the metabolic activities of the affected area. For example: the effects of coronary ischemia
What is anoxia?
- Anoxia happens when your body or brain completely loses its oxygen supply. Anoxia kills cells very quickly. Much of the damage from strokes and heart attacks. Results from local anoxia.
What is respiratory rate?
- Is normally regulated by the level of CO2 in the blood.
- Measured in breaths per minute and one of our vital signs
- The normal respiratory rate of a resting adult ranges from 12 to 18 breaths each min. roughly one for every 4 breaths per min. children
What is resting tidal volume?
The tidal volume under normal conditions, in the absence of exercise or other conditions that stimulate breathing.
What is expiratory reserve volume?
- The extra volume of air that can be expired with max. effort beyond the level reached at the end of a normal, quiet expiration.
What is residual volume?
- Is the amount of air that remains in a person's lungs after max. exhalation. In other words, is the volume of air that we can't possibly get out of our lungs.
What is the function of the Hering-Breuer reflex?
- The sensory info. From these reflexes goes to the apneustic centers and the ventral. Resp. group.
- It is what keeps the lungs from over-inflating with inspired air. Pulmonary stretch receptors present in the smooth muscle of the airways respond to exce
Hypercapnia.
. Is an increase in the Pco? of arterial blood. It is reinforced by the stimulation of CNS chemoreceptors. CO2 crosses the blood-brain barrier quite rapidly. For this reason, a rise in arterial Pco? , almost immediately, increases CO2 levels in the CSF, d
What is Hypocapnia?
- An abnormally low Pco?. In the bloodstream typically caused by hyperventilation or rapid breathing.
- If the Pco? drops below normal levels, chemoreceptor activity decreases and the respiratory rate falls. This situation continues until the Pco? returns
Most of the oxygen transported by the blood is bound to hemoglobin (True or false)
True
T-Cell activation leads to the formation of cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells that provide:
Cellular immunity
A specific defense mechanism is always activated by:
An antigen
The three different classes of lymphocytes in the blood are:
T-cells, B-cells, NK cells
Antibodies may promote inflammation through the stimulation of:
Basophils and mast cells
NK cells contain the proteins perforin and protectin that provide a type of immunity called:
Immunological surveillance
The type of immunity that develops as result of natural exposure to an antigen in the environment is:
Naturally acquired immunity
Tissue fluid enters the lymphatic system via the:
Lymph capillaries
The anatomical barriers and defense mechanisms that cannot distinguish one potential threat from another are called:
Nonspecific defense
The primary function of the lymphatic system is:
Production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes
Since each kind of B cell carries its own particular antibody molecule in its cell membrane, activation can only occur in the presence of a(n):
Corresponding antigen
_________ cells may activate B cells while _________ cells inhibit the activity of B cells.
Helper T; suppressor T
Depression of the immune system due to chronic stress may cause:
� A,B, AND C ARE CORRECT
� Depression of the inflammatory response
� A reduction in the activities and numbers of phagocytes in peripheral tissues
� The inhibition of interleukin secretion
The genes found in a region called the major histocompatibility complex are called:
Human leukocytes antigens (HLAs)
Activated B cells produce plasma cells that are specialized because of they:
Synthetize and secrete antibodies
When an immune response mistakenly targets normal body cells and tissues, the result is:
An autoimmune disorder
Lymphocytes that assist in the regulation and coordination of the immune response are:
Helper T and suppressor T cells
A person with type AB blood has:
Neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies
B lymphocytes differentiate into:
Memory and plasma cells
Sound production at the larynx is called ____________________.
Phonation
The lining of the alveolus is coated with an oily secretion called
surfactant
The correct sequential transport of O2 from the tissue capillaries to O2 consumption in cells is:
Erythrocyte, plasma, interstitial fluid cells
The exchange of Oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body's interstitial fluid and the external environment is:
External respiration
The residual volume is the volume of air:
Which remains in lungs after maximal expiration
If food particles or liquids manage to touch the surfaces of the ventricular or vocal folds the:
coughing reflex will be triggered
The primary function(s) of the respiratory system is (are):
o to move air to and from the exchange surfaces
o to provide an area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood
o to protect respiratory surfaces from dehydration and environmental variations
o to provide structures for phonation
o all of the choi
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood by:
conversion to a molecule of carbonic acid
binding to a protein part of the hemoglobin molecule
dissolving in plasma
A, B, and C are correct
Each molecule of hemoglobin has the capacity to carry ____4______ atoms of oxygen (O2).
4
Reflexes important in regulating the forced ventilations that accompany strenuous exercise are known as the:
Hering-Breuer reflexes
The trachea allows for the passage of large masses of food through the esophagus due to:
The C-shaped tracheal cartilages
uring inspiration there will be an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity and a(n)
-increasing lung volume, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure
The serous membrane in contact with the lung is the:
-Visceral pleura
A rise in arterial Pco2 elevates cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) carbon dioxide levels and stimulates the chemoreceptive neurons of the medulla to produce:
hyperventilation
The sympathetic division of the ANS causes __________ of airway smooth muscle; therefore, resistance is __________.
Relaxation, decreased
If the partial pressure of oxygen is lower in the pulmonary capillaries than in the alveolus, O2 will diffuse:
out of the alveolus into the pulmonary capillary
The efficiency of pulmonary ventilation and pulmonary circulation occurs because:
blood flow and air flow are coordinated
Air enters the respiratory passageways when the pressure inside the lungs is lower than the:
atmospheric pressure
Lower pH __________ the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin.
decreases
The maximum amount of air moved in and out during a single breath is
vital capacity