theory
set of ideas that provides a framework for questioning, gathering and interpreting information about a phenomenon
therapy
treatment that addresses factors that theory says cause the phenomenon
biopsychosocial approach
Combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors that results in the development of psychological symptoms
-Referred as risk factors because they increase the risk of psychological problems
biological, psychological, sociocultural
_____ risk factor = genetic predisposition
_____ risk factor = difficulty remaining calm in stressful situations
_____ risk factor = such as growing up with the stress of discrimination based on ethnicity or race
transdiagnostic risk factors
__ __ __ Increases the risk of multiple types of psychological problems
Diathesis-Stress Model
states that it takes both an existing diathesis (risk factor) to a disorder and a trigger, or stress, to create the disorder
3 biological causes of Abnormality
1. Brain dysfunction
2. Chemical Imbalances
3. Genetic Abnormalities
3 main regions of the brain
1. forebrain
2. midbrain
3. hindbrain
hindbrain
crucial for basic life functions
medulla = control breathing and reflexes
pons= attentiveness & timing of sleep
reticular formation= control arousal & attention to stimuli
cerebellum= coordination of movement
midbrain
superior & inferior colliculus= which relay sensory information and control movement
substantia nigra= regulates responses to reward
forebrain
large and developed compared to other organisms
thalamus= directs incoming information from sense receptors (such as vision and hearing)
hypothalamus= regulates eating, drinking, & sexual behavior. also processing basic emotions
pituitary gland
limbic system
cerebrum
cerebral cortex
the outer layer of the cerebrum
-involved in most advanced thinking processes
-connected by corpus collosum
-area damaged in Phineas Gage's accident.
4 lobes of the brain
1. frontal
2. parietal
3. occipital
4. temporal
subcortical structures
other structures of the forebrain that are found just under the cerebrum
Limbic system
Set of structures that regulate many instinctive behaviors, such as reactions to stressful events and eating (amygdala and hippocampus)
-Located around the central core of the brain and closely interconnected with the hypothalamus
amygdala
Structure of the limbic system that is critical in emotions such as fear
hippocampus
Part of the limbic system that plays a role in memory
neurotransmitters
Biochemicals that act as messengers carrying impulses from one neuron, or nerve cell, to another in the brain and in other parts of the nervous system
dendrites, axon, synaptic terminals.
each neuron has a cell body and a number of short branches called ______, they receive impulses from adjacent neurons & the impulse from them then travels down the length of a slender, tubelike extension called an ___, to small swellings at the end of the axon called __ ___.
Here the impulse stimulates the release of neurotransmitters.
synapse
Slight gap between the synaptic terminals and the adjacent neurons
receptors
Molecules on the membrane of adjacent neurons
reuptake
Occurs when the neurons that initially released the neurotransmitter into the synapse reabsorb the neurotransmitter, decreasing the amount left in the synapse
degradation
Occurs when the receiving neuron releases an enzyme into the synapse that breaks down the neurotransmitter into other biochemicals
1. reuptake
2. degradation
2 processes that affect neurotransmitters
biochemical imbalances
Psychological symptoms may possibly be associated with:
-Number and functioning of the receptors for neurotransmitters on the dendrites
-Malfunctioning in neurotransmitter systems
Serotonin
Travels through many key areas of the brain, affecting the function of those areas
-important in emotional well-being, particularly in depression and anxiety, and in dysfunctional behaviors, such as aggressive impulses
-transdiagnostic risk factor
Dopamine
Found in areas of the brain associated with the experience of reinforcements or rewards, and it is affected by substances, such as alcohol, that are found rewarding
-transdiagnostic risk factor
norepinephrine
AKA noradrenaline
Produced by neurons in the brain stem
Cocaine and amphetamine, prolong the action of norepinephrine by slowing its reuptake process. because of delay the receiving neurons are activated for a longer time.
-too little causes depression
Gammaaminobutyric acid or GABA
Inhibits the action of other neurotransmitters
Tranquilizing effect of some drugs is because they increase the inhibitory activity of GABA
endocrine system
System of glands that produces chemicals called hormones released directly into the blood
hormones
Carries messages throughout the body and affects:
Mood
Levels of energy
Reactions to stress
pituitary
(master gland) it produces the largest number of different hormones and controls the secretion of other endocrine glands.
-Malfunctioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) cause anxiety and depression
-lies just below the hypothalamus.
hypothalamus
the _____ regulates the endocrine system, which produces most of the major hormones of the body
behavior genetics
Study of the genetics of personality and abnormality is concerned with the following questions
2 questions of behavior genetics
To what extent are behaviors or behavioral tendencies inherited?
What are the processes by which genes affect behavior?
gene abnormality
Disorders are associated with multiple abnormal genes
polygenic process
(multi-gene)Multiple genetic abnormalities coming together in one individual to create a specific disorder
interactions between genes and environment
-Genetic factors influence the kinds of environments chosen which reinforces individual's genetically influenced personalities and interests (jim twins)
-Environment acts as a catalyst for a genetic tendency
-Epigenetics: Environmental conditions affect the expression of genes
---Environment modifies the DNA to turn on or off
drug therapies
Help relieve psychological symptoms by improving the functioning of neurotransmitter systems
antipsyhotic drugs
help reduce the symptoms of psychosis, which include hallucinations and delusions
antidepressant drugs
reduce symptoms of depression (sadness, loss of appetite, sleep disturbances)
lithium
reduces symptoms of mania (agittion, excitement, grandiosity)
anticonvulsants
Used to treat mania and has fewer side effects than lithium
antianxiety drugs
reduces symptoms of anxiety (fearfulness, worry, tension)
Electroconvulsive therapy and newer brain stimulation techniques
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS ): repeated high intensity magnetic pulses focused on particular brain structures
Deep brain stimulation: electrodes surgically implanted in specific areas
Vagus nerve stimulation: electrodes attached to vagus nerve, a part of nervous system that carries information to several areas of the brain.
psychosurgery
Used rarely, and only with people who have severe disorders that do not respond to other forms of treatment
biological therapies
drug therapies, Electroconvulsive therapy and newer brain stimulation techniques
, psychosurgery
assessing biological approaches
Sufferer of a disorder has no role in the recovery process
Treatment is drug dependent and address biological issues
Side effects are worse than the disorder itself
Role of the environment and psychological processes are not addressed
behavioral approaches
focus on the influence of reinforcements and punishments in producing behavior.
2 core principles of behavioral approaches
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
classical conditioning
Explains people's seemingly irrational responses to a host of neutral stimuli
operant conditioning
Shaping of behaviors by rewarding desired behaviors punishing undesired behaviors
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule
Extinction
Conditioned avoidance response
continuous reinforcement schedule
in operant conditioning, behaviors will be learned most quickly if they are paired with the reward or punishment every time the behavior is emitted.
partial reinforcement schedule
the reward or punishment occurs only sometimes in response to the behavior
extinction
eliminating a learned behavior
-ore difficult when behavior was learned through partial than continuous reinforcement schedule.
conditioned avoidance response
behaviors designed to avoid triggers for that fear
ex: woman and bridge
Modeling learning
New behaviors are learnt from imitating the behaviors modeled by important people
observational learning
Person observes the rewards and punishments that another person receives and then behaves accordingly
behavioral therapies
focus on identifying those reinforcements and punishments that contribute to a person's maladaptive behaviors and on changing specific behaviors.
systematic desensitization therapy
a gradual method for extinguishing anxiety responses to stimuli and the maladaptive behavior that often accompanies this anxiety.
assessing behavioral approaches
Set the standard for scientifically testing hypotheses about how normal and abnormal behaviors develop
Effectiveness has been extensively and systematically supported in controlled studies
Could account for some disorders
Evidences are from laboratory studies
Does not recognizing free will in people's behaviors
cognitive theories
Argue that it is not just rewards and punishments that motivate human behavior
cognition
thoughts or beliefs
-shapes behavior and emotion
casual attributions
Of events can influence behavior because it impacts the meaning given to present and future events
global assumptions
Broad beliefs of oneself, relationships and the world
cognitive therapies
Identify and challenge negative thoughts and dysfunctional belief systems
-Helps to learn effective problem-solving techniques to deal with the concrete problems
-Designed to be short term
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
Cognitive techniques combined with behavioral techniques
goals of cognitive therapy
1. Assist clients in identifying their irrational and maladaptive thoughts
2. Teach clients to challenge their irrational or maladaptive thoughts and to consider alternative ways of thinking
3. Encourage clients to face their worst fears about a situation and recognize ways they could cope
assessing cognitive approaches
Proven useful in the treatment of disorders like:
-Sexual disorders
-Substance use disorders
Difficult to prove that maladaptive cognitions precede and cause disorders
-Rather than being the symptoms or consequences of the disorders
psychodynamic theories
Believes all behavior, thoughts, and emotions, both normal or abnormal, are influenced by unconscious processes
psychoanalysis
1. Theory of personality and psychopathology
2. Method of investigating the mind
3. Form of treatment for psychopathology
catharsis
the release of emotions connected to memories
repression
the motivated forgetting of a difficult experience
human behavior is driven by (2):
libido: sexual drive
aggressive drive
3 systems of the human psyche:
ID
Ego
Superego
ID
System from which the libido emerges, and its drives and impulses seeks immediate release
-operates by pleasure principle
Ego
Force that gratifies wishes and needs in ways that remain within the rules of society for its appropriate expression
-young child will know what is rights from wrong
Superego
Storehouse of rules and regulations for the conduct of behavior that are learned from one's parents and from society
-absolute moral standards
unconscious
Interactions among the id, ego, and superego occur in the _____.
unconscious
Completely out of our awareness
-most interactions between the ID, ego, and superego occur here
preconscious
Intermediate between the unconscious and the conscious
defense mechanisms
certain strategies that the ego uses to disguise or transform unconscious wishes
psychosexual stages
Oral: 0-18 months (breast feeding)
Anal: 18 months to 3 years (poop)
Phallic: 3 to 6 years (genital pleasure)
Latent: 6 years to puberty (skills and interest)
Genital: puberty to adulthood(sexuality)
ego psychology
Emphasizes on individual's ability to regulate defenses that allow healthy functioning within the realities of society
object relations
Integrated significant aspects of Freud's drive theory with the role of early relationships in areas of development of self-concept and personality
self psychology and relational psychoanalysis
Emphasize the unconscious dimensions of our relationships with one another from pregnancy and infancy throughout all of life
psychodynamic therapies
Help clients recognize:
Their maladaptive coping strategies
The sources of their unconscious conflicts
free association
Client talks about whatever comes to mind, without censoring any thoughts
transference
Occurs when the client reacts to the therapist as if the therapist were an important person in the client's early development
working through
Repeatedly going over painful memories and difficult issues
resistance
the material the client is reluctant to talk about during psychotherapy
Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
Emerged from modern psychodynamic theories and is short-term
Shifted focus from the unconscious conflicts to the client's pattern of relationships with important people in their lives
Therapist is much more structured and directive
Offers interpretations much earlier
Focuses on how to change current relationships
assessing psychodynamic approaches
Most comprehensive theories of human behavior
Difficult or impossible to test its fundamental assumptions, scientifically
Long-term and intensive nature makes it unaffordable for many people
humanistic theories
Based on the assumption that humans have an innate capacity for goodness and for living a full life
Carl Rogers approach
Individuals naturally move toward personal growth, self-acceptance, and self-actualization
self-actualization
Fulfillment of ones potential for love, creativity, and meaning
humanistic therapy
goal is to help clients discover their potential through self-exploration
client-centered therapy
Therapist communicates a genuineness in his or her role as helper
-Acting as an authentic person not an authority figure
-Showing unconditional positive regard for the client
-Communicating with empathic understanding
reflection
method of responses in which he therapist expresses an attempt to understand what the client is experiencing and trying to communicate
assessing humanistic approach
Focus on free will is a refreshing change from the emphasis on pathology and external forces
Criticized for being vague and not subject to scientific testing
Appropriate for people who are moderately distressed but insufficient for people who are seriously distressed
family systems theory
Views the family as a complex interpersonal system, with its own hierarchy and rules that govern family members' behavior
Views a family member's psychological disorder as an indication of a dysfunctional family system
family systems therapy
Believes that an individual's problems are always rooted in interpersonal systems, particularly family systems
-must treat the entire family, not just one individual.
behavioral family systems therapy (BFST)
targets family communication and problem solving
assessing family systems approach
Effective in the treatment of children, because they are so much more entwined in families than adults
Needs more research
third-wave approaches
Focus on people's ability to understand and regulate their emotions
Incorporates techniques from behavioral, cognitive therapy with Zen Buddhism
(1st wave: behavioral, 2nd wave: cognitive)
dialectical behavior therapy
Difficulties in managing negative emotions and in controlling impulsive behaviors
acceptance and commitment therapy
Avoidance of painful thoughts, memories, and feelings is the heart of all problems
Sociocultural approach
-Look beyond the individual or family to the larger society to understand people's problems
-Social norms and policies that stigmatize and marginalize certain groups put these individuals at increased risk for mental health problems
-Implicit or explicit rules about what types of abnormal behavior are acceptable determines the type of psychopathology show by member of a society
risk factors for mental health problems
Socioeconomic disadvantage
Upheaval and disintegration of societies
Social norms and policies that stigmatize and marginalize certain groups
cross-cultural issues in treatment
-Most psychotherapies are focused on the individual whereas most cultures are collective
-Psychotherapies value the expression of emotions whereas most cultures restrain them
-Clients are expected to initiate communication on expectations which can clash with cultural norms
-Class and issues of race pose difficulty in accessing help
-Issues of age difference, gender and ethnicity hinder treatment
primary prevention
Stopping the development of disorders before they start
secondary prevention
Detecting a disorder at its earliest stages to prevent the development of the full-blown disorder
tertiary prevention
Preventing relapse and reducing the impact of the disorder on the person's quality of life
common elements in effective treatments
Have a positive relationship with the client
Provide clients with an explanation or interpretation of why they are suffering
Encourage clients to confront painful emotions and have techniques for helping them become less sensitive to these emotions