etiology
causal pattern
necessary cause
a condition that must exist for a disorder to occur
sufficient cause
a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder
(one theory suggest hopelessness is a sufficient cause of depression)
contributory cause
one that increases the probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur
distal causal factors
causal factors occurring relatively early in life may not show their effects for many years; may contribute to a predisposition to develop a disorder (for example: loss of a parent early in life)
proximal causal factors
causal factors that operate shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a disorder; may be a condition that proves too much for a child or adult and triggers the onset of a disorder
reinforcing contributory cause
a condtion that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring
-example is the extra attention, sympathy, and relief from unwanted responsibility that may come when a person is ill; these pleasant experiences may unintentionally discoura
causal pattern
when more than one causal factor is involved as is often the case
diathesis
a predisposition toward developing a disorder; can derive from biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors
diathesis-stress models
view of abnormal behavior as the result of stress operating on an individual who has a biological, psychosocial, or sociocultural predisposition to developing a specific disorder
stress
the response or experience of an individual to demands that he or she perceives as taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources
protective factors
influences that modify a person's response to environmental stressors, making it less likely that the person will experience the adverse consequences of the stressors
resilience
the ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances; an example is the child who perseveres and does well in school despite his or her parent's drug addiction or physical abuse
developmental psychopathology
focuses on determing what is abnormal at any point in development by comparing and contrasting it with the normal and expected changes that occur in the course of development
biopsychosocial viewpoint
many theorists have come to recognize the need for this more integrative viewpoint that acknowledges that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment
synapse
a tiny fluid-filled space between neurons; the site of communication between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron
neurotransmitters
chemical substances that are released into the synapse by the presynaptic neuron when a nerve impulse occurs; internueronal transmissions are accomplished by these
-many different kinds- some increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will "fire
neurotransmitter imbalances
-may be excessive production and release of the neurotransmitter substance into the synapses, causing a functional excess in levels
-may be dysfuctions in the normal processes by which neurotransmitters released into synapse are deactivated
-may be proble
chemical circuits
neurons that are sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter tend to cluster together, forming neural paths between different parts of the brain; different disorders are thought to stem from different patterns of neurotransmitter imbalances in various brai
five kinds of neurotransmitters (studied in relationship to psychopathology)
1) norepinephrine~ emergency reactions, attention, orientation, basic motives
2) dopamine~ pleasure and cognitive processing, schizophrenia
3) serotonin~ way we think &process info from environment, behaviors and moods
4) glutamate~ implicated in schizoph
monoamines
class of neurotransmitters, synthesized from a single amino acid; norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin belong to this class
hormones
chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in our bodies; each of the endocrine glands produces and releases its own set of hormones directly into our bloodstream- the hormones then travel and directly affect target cells in various parts o
pituitary gland
the master gland of the body, producing a variety of hormones that regulate or control the other endocrine glands
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)
1) Messages in the form of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary.
2) In response to CRH, pituitary releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the cortical part of the adrenal gland to prod
genes
consist of very long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and are present at various locations on chromosomes;
carriers of genetic information that we inherit from our parents and other ancestors, each ____ exists in two or more alternate forms called
chromosomes
the chain-like structures within a cell nucleus that contain the genes; healthy human cells have 46 _______ containing genetic materials that encode the hereditary plan for each individual; normal inheritance consists of 23 pairs of _______, 22 determine
sex chromosomes, 23rd pair
determine individuals sex, XX (female), XY (male), father determines second X or Y chromosome
polymorphisms
naturally occurring variations of genes
polygenic
Although you will often hear about discoveries that "the gene" for a particular disorder has been discovered, vulnerabilities to mental disorders are almost always _______, which means they are influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of
genotype
a person's total gentic endowment; except for identical twins, no two humans ever begin life with the same endowment
phenotype
the observed structural and functional characteristics that result from an interaction of the genotype and the environment
genotype-environment correlation
genotypic vulberability that can shape a child's environmental experiences
passive effect
child's genotype results from the genetic similarity of parents and children
-for ex, highly intelligent parents may provide a highly stimulating environment for their child, thus creating an environment that will interact in a positive way with the child
evocative effect
child's genotype may evoke particular kinds of reactions from the social and physical environment
-for ex, active, happy babies evoke more positive responses from others than do passive, unresponsive infants
-musically talented children may be picked out
active effect
child's genotype may play a more active role in shaping the environment; in this case the child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial- "niche building"
-for ex, extraverted children may seek the company of others, thereby enhancing their ow
genotype-environment interaction
differential sensitivity or susceptibility to their environments by people who have different genotypes
behavior genetics
the field that focuses on studying the heritability of mental disorders (as well as other aspects of psychological functioning): 1- the family history or pedigree method, 2- the twin method, and 3- the adoption method; two additional methods, linkage stud
family history (or pedigree) method
requires that an investigator observe samples of relatives of each proband or index case (the subject, or carrier, of the trait or disorder in question) to see whether the incidence increases in proportion to the degree of hereditary relationship
twin method
the second approach used to study genetic influences on abnormal behavior; identical (monozygotic) twins share the same genetic endowment because they develop from a single zygote, or fertilized egg
concordance rate
the percentage of twins sharing the disorder or trait in question; if one identical twin had a particular disorder, the other twin would as well
-there are no forms of psychopathology in DSM-IV-TR where rates for identical twins are this high, so we can c
adoption method
this method capitalizes on the fact that adoption creates a situation in which individuals who do not share a common family environment are nonetheless genetically related
-in one variation on this method, the biological parents of individuals without the
shared environmental influences
those that would make children in a family more similar, whether the influence occurs within the family (e.g., family discord and poverty) or in the environment (e.g., two high-quality schools, with one twin going to each)
nonshared environmental influences
those in which the children in a family differ- these would include unique experiences at school and also some unique features of upbringing in the home, such as a parent treating one child in a qualitatively different way from another
linkage analysis
studies of mental disorders that capitalize on several currently known locations on chromosomes of genes for other inherited physical characteristics or biological processes (such as eye color, blood group, etc.)
association studies
studies that start with two large groups of individuals, one group with and one group without a given disorder
temperament
refers to a child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation; differences in a child's characteristic emotional and arousal responses to various stimuli and in their tendency to approach, withdraw, or attend to various situations
3 important dimensions of adult personality
1) neuroticism or negative emotionality
2) extraversion or positive emotionality
3) constraint (conscientiousness and agreeableness)
neural plasticity
flexibility of the brain in making changes in organization and function in response to pre- and postnatal experiences, stress, diet, disease, drugs, maturation, and so forth; existing neural circuits can be modifiied, or new neural circuits can be generat
developmental systems approach
this approach acknowledges not only that genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment, but also that these influences are bidirectional
mediator (or mediating variable)
lies between two other variables and helps explain the relationship between them
psychoanalytic school
emphasized the role of unconscious motives and thoughts and their dynamic interrelationships in the determination of both normal and abnormal behavior; key concept is the unconscious; developed by Sigmund Freud
3 key components of the personality or psyche (Freud)
the id
ego
superego
the id
the source of instinctual drives and is the first structure to appear in infancy; these drives are inherited and are considered to be of two opposing types: (1) life instincts and (2) death instincts
life instincts
part of the id; constructive drives primarily of a sexual nature and which constitute the libido, the basic emotional and psychic energy of life
death instincts
part of the id; destructive drives that tend toward aggression, destruction, and eventual death
the pleasure principle
The id operates on ___________, engaging in completely selfish and pleasure-oriented behavior, concerned only with the immediate gratification of instinctual needs without reference to reality or moral considerations.
primary process thinking
Although the id can generate mental images and wish-fulfilling fantasies, referred to as ___________, it cannot undertake the realistic actions needed to meet instinctual demands.
the ego
After the first few months of life, a second part of the personality, as viewed by Freud, develops- the ____.
-mediates between the demands of the id and the realities of the external world (ex: toilet training-__ mediates between physical needs of body &
secondary process thinking
reality-oriented rational processes of the ego for dealing with the external world and the exercise of control over id demands
the reality principle
awareness of the demands of the environment and adjustment of behavior to meet these demands
the superego
conscience; ethical or moral dimensions (attitudes) of personality
-Freud postulated that as a child grows and learns the rules of parents and society regarding right and wrong, this third part of the personality emerges from the ego.
intrapsychic conflicts
inner mental struggles resulting from the interplay of the id, ego, and superego when the three subsystems are striving for different goals; if unresolved, these can lead to mental disorder
anxiety
generalized feelings of fear and apprehension- prominent in the psychoanalytic viewpoint because it is an almost universal symptom of neurotic disorders
-Freud believed that this plays a key causal role in most of the forms of psychopathology
ego-defense mechanisms
psychic mechanisms that discharge or soothe anxiety rather than coping directly with an anxiety-provoking situation; usually unconscious and reality distorting; also called defense mechanisms
psychosexual stages of development
According to Freudian theory, there are five stages of ________ __________, each characterized by a dominant mode of achieving sexual pleasure: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latency stage, and the genital stage.
oral stage
-First 2 years of life, mouth is principal erogenous zone: An infant's greatest source of gratification is sucking, a process that is necessary for feeding.
anal stage
-Ages 2-3, the anus provides the major source of pleasurable stimulation during the time when toilet training is often going on and there are urges both for retention and for elimination
phallic stage
-Ages 3-5 or 6, self-manipulation of the genitals provides the major source of pleasurable sensation
latency period
-Ages 6-12, sexual motivations recede in importance as a child becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities
genital stage
-After puberty, the deepest feelings of pleasure come from sexual relations.
the Oedipus complex
desire for sexual relations with a parent of opposite sex; specifically, the desire of a boy for his mother, with his father a hatred rival
castration anxiety
As postulated by Freud, the anxiety a young boy experiences when he desires his mother while at the same time fearing that his father may harm him by cutting off his penis; this anxiety forces the boy to repress his sexual desire for his mother and his ho
Electra complex
excessive emotional attachment (love) of a daughter for her father; the female counterpart of the Oedipus complex
penis envy
Freud believed that each girl at the Electra complex stage experiences this, wishing she could be more like her father and brothers. She emerges from this complex when she comes to identify with her mother and settles for a promissory note: One day she wi
ego psychology
psychodynamic theory emphasizing the importance of the ego- "the executive branch of the personality"- in organizing normal personality development
object-relations theory
In psychoanalytic theory, this viewpoint focuses on an infant or young child's interactions with "objects" (that is, real or imagined people), as well as how they make symbolic representations of important people in their lives.
introjection
a child symbolically incorporates into his or her personality (through images and memories) important people in his or her life
borderline personality
-chief characteristic of instability
-individuals who are unable to achieve a full and stable personal identity (self) because of an inability to integrate and reconcile pathological internalized objects
interpersonal perspective
approach to understanding abnormal behavior that views much of psychopathology as rooted in the unfortunate tendencies we develop while dealing with our interpersonal environment; it thus focuses on our relationships, past and present, with other people
attachment theory
contemporary developmental and psychodynamic theory emphasizing the importance of early experience with attachment relationships in laying the foundation for later functioning throughout life
the humanistic perspective
views human nature as basically "good"
-pays less attention to unconscious processes and past causes, it emphasizes present conscious processes and places strong emphasis on people's inherent capacity for responsible self-direction
-self is a unifying the
the existential perspective
resembles the humanistic view in its emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual, the quest for values and meaning, and the existence of freedom for self-direction and self-fulfillment
-takes less optimistic view of human beings and places mroe emphasis
learning
the modification of behavior as a consequence of experience; the central theme of the behavioral approach
classical conditioning
a basic form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR); after repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that eli
extinction
gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced
spontaneous recovery
the return of a learned response at some time after extinction has occurred
operant (or instrumental) conditioning
form of learning in which if a particular response is reinforced, it becomes more likely to be repeated on similar occasions
reinforcement
the process of rewarding desired responses
response-outcome expectancy
it is now believed that the animal or person learns this when the reinforcement occurs
conditioned avoidance response
consistently avoiding something because of a developed fear
(feeling anxious when seeing a pool, or body of water when someone has developed a fear of water due to a near drowning incident; running away eases anxiety and reinforces the phobia); these can
generalization
tendency of a response that has been conditioned to one stimulus to be elicited by other, similar stimuli
discrimination
ability to interpret and respond differently to two or more similar stimuli
observational learning
learning through observation alone without directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus (for classical conditioning) or a reinforcement (for instrumental conditioning)
internal reinforcement
-Albert Bandura (b. 1925), a learning theorist, stressed that human beings regulate behavior by internal symbolic processes--thoughts. We prepare ourselves for difficult tasks, for example, by visualizing what the consequences would be if we did not perfo
theory of self-efficacy
Bandura's theory- the belief that one can achieve desired goals, he said "human beings have a capacity for self-direction
coginitive-behavioral perspective
a theory of abnormal behavior that focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior
schema
an underlying representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension;
people develop different ______ based on their temperament, abilities, and experiences
self-schemas
our view of what we are, what we might become, and what is important to us
assimilation
we tend to work new experiences into our existing cognitive frameworks, even if the new info has to be reinterpreted or distorted to make it fit
accommodation
changing our existing frameworks to make it possible to incorporate new info that doesn't fit- is more difficult and threatening, especially when important assumptions are challenged; basic goal of psychological therapies- especially in cognitive and cogn
nonconsciously
Another important feature of information processing is that a great deal of information is processed __________, or outside of our awareness.
implicit memory
well-known phenomenon which is demonstrated when a person's behavior reveals that she or he remembers a previously learned word or activity even though she or he cannot consciously remember it
attribution
the process of assigning causes to things that happen; we may ______ behavior to external events such as rewards or punishments ("He did it for the money"), or we may assume the causes are internal and derive from traits within ourselves or others ("He di
attributional style
a characteristic way in which an individual tends to assign causes to bad events or good events
self-serving bias
nondepressed people tend to have what is called _________ in which they are more likely to make internal, stable, and global attributions for positive rather than negative events