what processes or substrates are enzymes are being used?
Fermentation
Biotransformation
Pharmaceutical Industry
Fermentations
transformation of raw materials such as sugar, starch, etc. in industrial mixtures such as liquors, brewing
Biotransformations
transformation of defined precursors to a desired target product
Pharmaceutical industry
synthesis and modification of antibiotics
protease
degradation of proteins
cellulase
degradation of cellulose
lipase
degradation of lipids
amylase
conversion of starch to glucose
glucose isomerase
production of high glucose syrup
phytase
improve nutrient availability
xylanase
removal of lignin "bio bleaching
amylase (fruit)
removal of fruit starch haze
hydrolase
breakers for biopolymer gels
chymosin
clotting in cheese manufacture
pectinase
increased yields
what does life depend on?
a complex network of chemical reactions
what is a enzyme
special class of protein which has sites that bind and catalyze molecules in a reation
binding sites
very specific for a particular ligand
binding is reversible = there is an equilibrium between the free and bound ligand
Activation Energy
the energy needed to get chemical reactions started
what role do enzymes play on chemical reactions?
they greatly reduce the activation energy
what makes enzymes so important in a reaction
they show a high selectivity and usually catalyze only one specific reaction
most reactions in the body are mediated by what?
enzymes
enzymes
protein catalists that increase the rate of reactions (velocity) without being changed in the process
Substrate
enzyme reactants Glucose is a substrate of the enzyme glucokinase
Synthetase
requires ATP
synthase
no ATP required
Phosphatase
uses water to remove phosphoryl group
Phoshorylase
uses Pi to break a bond and generate a phosphorylated product
Dehydrogenase
NAD+/FAD is an electron acceptor in a redox reaction
oxidase
O2 is the acceptor, and oxygen atoms are not incorporated into substrate
oxygenase
one or both oxygen atoms are incorporated
what are the major classes of enzymes
Oxidoreductases
Transferases
hydrolases
lyases
iosomerases
ligases
polymerases
proteases
kinases
ATPase
synthases
phosphate
Oxidoreductases
catalyze reactions in which one molecule is oxidized while the other is reduced
Transferases
transfer carbon, nitrogen or phosphate containing groups
Hydrolases
enzymes that catalyze a hydrolytic cleavage reaction (nucleases and proteases)
Lyases
catalyze the cleavage of C-C, C-S, and C-N bonds
Isomerases:
catalyze the rearrangement of bonds within a single molecule
Ligases
Join together (ligate) two molecules in an energydependent process (DNA ligase joins two DNA molecules)
Polymerases
catalyze polymerization reactions such as the synthesis of DNA and RNA
Proteases
break down proteins by hydrolyzing bonds between amino acids
Kinases
Catalyze the addition of phosphate groups to molecules
ATPases
Hydrolyze ATP (Na,K ATPase)
Synthases
synthesize molecules in anabolic reactions by condensing two smaller molecules together (ATP synthase)
Phosphatase
catalyze the hydrolytic removal of a phosphate group from a molecule ()
What are the properties of enzymes
Active sites/ specificity
efficient
presence of cofactors
regulation
location in the cell
Active Sites
special pocket called the 'active site' which has a high specificity
Efficiency
reactions catalyzed by enzymes are 103-108 times faster than uncatalyzed reactions
Specificity
enzymes interact with one of few substrates and catalyze only one type of chemical reaction
The presence of cofactors
some enzymes (holoenzymes) require cofactors (Cu2+, Fe2+,etc.)
holoenzyme
E + CF > active
apoenzyme
E - CF > inactive
Regulation
enzyme activity can be regulated
Location in the cell
Many enzymes are located in specific organelles in the cell
this helps the competition for the substrate or enabling more favorable condition
what is the transition state
the bonds are changing
the product is forming