Egyptians
Used Public speaking for social control
Pericles
Used public speaking for teachable reasons
Demosthenes
used public speaking for practice
Cicero
Traditional Style: Canons of rhetoric
-Invention
-Organization
-Language/Style
-"Memory"
-Delivery
Quintillian
Tradition: Ethics
Institutes of Oratory
The good "man" speaking "well
Democracy
(Society)
Free expression
Educated electorate
Constitution
(Society)
First Amendment: Bill of Rights
Freedom: religion, speech, assembly, press
Culture
(Society)
Attitudes, Values, Beliefs
Leadership
(Reality)
Verbal facility an indicator of power
Leaders often verbally astute
Career
(Reality)
NACE most valued skills
Personal Citizenship
(Reality)
Political, Religious, Social
Increase communication competence in speaking to the public
1) Forums for practicing civil discourse
2) Facilitate public discourse and civic engagement
Difference
distinction that people draw between themselves and others as reflecting in their values, beliefs, and attitudes that is informed by different variables
Different way people are distinguishable
ideology, religion, cultural heritage, race, class, gender, and sexual orientation
Civil Dialogue
a form of communication that allows people to
- express vigorously their opinions and points of view
- BUT in a way that contributes to rigorous and constructive deliberation
- on significant issues
- empowers personal and professional relationships
Ethos
Impression audience forms of speakers's competence and character
Competence
perception of knowledge, intelligence
Character
sincerity, trustworthiness, concern for audience
Audience
who is assessing your competence (adapt your message to them)
How to know the audience
Perspective taking
Analysis of people in room (Levels, Methods)
Main part of Speech
Introduction, Body, and Conclusion
Order of Project Management (inversely)
1) "Begin with the end in mind"
2) Speaking on topic to classroom audience
3) Rehearse
4) Prepare Speech Materials (organize your ideas0
5) Research
6) Make initial decisions
Making Initial Decisions
Read the assignment
Research
Searching for quality sources
How to organize your ideas
Outlining, Outline
How to make a Thesis Statement
single, clear, declarative sentence. Answers the question.
Introduction
15%
Body
75%
Conclusion
10%
Principle of Subordination
-Use only one sentence per level.
- If speech is too short, there are ways to fix it (do more research and learn more to say)
-If the speech is too long, there are ways to fix it (Don't give all information)
Where to find supporting material
Library
A&M interviews
Internet
Supporting Material
Facts
Statistics
Expert testimony
(Explanations are added for clarity)
Primary Research
Interviews, Surveys and questionnaires, observations
Secondary Research
Scholar books and articles
Tertiary Research
Fact Books, Bibliographies etc.
Statistics
numbers used to show relationships between items
Expert Testimony
ideas of another person who is an expert on the topic
Rule of Thumb
At least two different kinds of support per main point
Tests of Evidence
Reliability, Sufficiency, Recency, Accuracy
Reliability
qualified by education and experience
Accuracy
cited in accordance with fact; not taken out of context
Kritikos
to be able to discern; to be able to judge
Constructive Criticism
-Highlights what speaker can do to improve
- Honing critical skills lets listener become better communicator
- listen to many speeches
To use criticism, need:
- Set of standards/criteria by which to criticize
- Skills to engage in criticism
3 sets of Standards
- Effectiveness
- Universality
- Conformity to the Principles of the Art
Universality
to what extent did the speech address the values and issues that have significance for all people in all times.
Historical Justification
(Universality)
Thesis and purpose justified by subsequent historical events
Ethical Merit
(Universality)
Judged based on arguments for what is true, moral, humane or good
Conformity to Principles of the Art
-Technical components of speech making
-Premise (rhetoric is neutral)
- Based on organization, source credibility, delivery, style, and the like
- Makes our own speeches better when we evaluate others on these principles
- We become better advocates when
Values of Critical Thinkers
-Reluctant to accept assertions on faith
- Distinguish facts from opinion
- seek to uncover assumptions
- are open to new ideas
- apply reason and common sense to new ideas
-relate new ideas to what they already know
- = Reflective Judgment
Vocal Delivery
Breath, Volume, Pitch, Timing, Pauses, Projection
Nonverbal
Stance, Appearance, Gestures, Eye Contact
Language
a code whereby ideas about the world are represented by arbitrary symbols in a conventional system for communication
Idiom
two or more words that mean something other than the literal meanings of its individual words
language style
a deviation from the common idiom
Reasons for Language Style
- Enhances ethos
- Increases memorability
- Increases audience's level of attention
Linguistic Devices
- Antithesis
- Anaphora
- Antistrophe
- Scala
- Polysyndeton
- Asyndeton
Antithesis
- a rhetorical term for the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases or clause
- Balanced and symmetrical
- shorter the better
- Optimum power= direct antonyms
Example of Double antithesis
Without the darkness of night we can never know the brightness of day
AB-BA Reversal or Chiasmus
Type of antithesis
- second half balanced against the first
- parts reversed
"Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country
Anaphora
- Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses
- Builds towards strong emotional effect
- "for everything there is a season.. a time to be born, and a time to dies; a time to plant... etc
Antistrophe
Repetition at the end of phrases/sentences
"With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together
Guidelines for Parallel Repetition
- Use repetition to increase memorability
- Parallel repetitions sound better in groups of three
- Reserve repetition for key words or themes
Guidelines for Scalas
- Use a scala to show the reach of progression of your topic
- Make certain that each "stair" logically follows the one that precedes it
- the last word of the scala should be the last word of the sentence.
Polysyndeton
a sentence that employs many conjunctions (the opposite of asyndeton)
aka sounding like a run on sentence.
Guidelines for Polysyndetons
- Use of polysyndetons when you wish to suggest scope or magnitude
- Don't get extreme! The golden mean for conjunctions is about four or five
- "Wow that many?
Asyndeton
omit conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses
When audience agrees with you:
Present arguments:
-against change
- strengthening existing attitudes
- encouraging continued action
- Inoculation Theory
Inoculation Theory
prevent persuasion by presenting arguments agains the arguments that the audience is likely to hear later.
When the audience disagrees with you:
Present arguments:
- that are carefully built
- begin with logical appeals
- use fewer emotional appeals than logical appeals
- use fair and respectful evidence
- build your personal credibility- know the facts
- Social Judgment theory
Social Judgment Theory
People compare messages to their present point of view
Latitude of Acceptance
(Social Judgment Theory)
- all those positions on an issue that an individual finds acceptable including the most acceptable potion.
Latitude of rejection
(Social Judgment theory)
- Those positions that the individual finds objectionable, including the most objectionable position.
Latitude of non-commitment
(Social Judgment Theory)
- consists of those positions on which the individuals preferred to remain noncommittal
How to gain audience attention if Uniformed
gain attention & provide info
Strategie for Unconcerned audience
Gain attention, provide reason to care, present relevant information and evidence
Strategie for Firmly undecided audience
acknowledge both sides of argument, provide new information, emphasize the strength of argument on your side of the issue
Pathos
to change behaviors, appeal to honesty and sincerity
Logos
to change negative behaviors, make logical appeals
Mythos
use narratives and testimonials to help audience visualize change
Consistency Theory
- Seek messages that are consistent with out attitudes, values and beliefs
Elaboration Likelihood Theory
- An attitude change theory
- Central vs. peripheral processing
- Primary Factors: personal significance of topic to listener
- Ability: hearing understanding, attention, time, energy, background knowledge
Persuasion
changing or reinforcing the audience's beliefs or actions
- changing the mind, heart, and action
Advocate for a policy
One who:
- Pleads in favor of
- Supports by argument
- Defends or vindicates
Questions of policy are contrasted with:
Question of Fact
Question of Value
Compare values to a standard
Define standard
Judge subject against standard
Monroe's Motivated Sequence
1) Attention
2) Need
3) Satisfaction
4) Visualization
5) Action
Contrastive Method of Visualization
Negative first- then Positive
Zarefsky
(Refute)
The attack and defense of a challenged statement or claim
Brydon and Scott
(Refute)
To answer the arguments of another
Sproule
(Refute)
To attempt to weaken the proofs offered by the opposition
Osborne and Osborne
(Refute)
to raise doubt about a competing position by revealing inconsistencies and weakness
To "refute" an argument, reservation or position in opposition:
1. Clearly frame the message that you will refute
2. Explain the significance
3. Introduce and then develop your refutation
4. Explain how your message images the opposition (explain the impact)
Cicero Strategy
Cicero-
take on weakest argument first
raises doubt early
Overall Guidelines for a Refutation speech
- Find a message that counters their message (prove that a fact is wrong)
- Find fault with their reasoning (attack illogical reasoning)
- Get more information to answer the question
- be ethical: constructive and fair
Kinesics
-Study of body movements gesture, and facial expression, posture
- understand use of body movement by understanding (character or person, environment, our own character/context)
Proxemics
use of space
- Intimate (<18 feet)
- Personal (18-4 feet)
- Social (4-12 feet)
- Public (>12 feet)
Gesture
-Move random motion to gestures
-Make gestures match message, occasion
Oral Aspects of speech
Pitch, Rate, Inflection, Volume, Quality, Enunciation, Non-word vocalization, silences
Objects/Artifacts
-Info conveyed by clothing, adornment, hairstyles, cosmetics, accessories, etc.
- Tells about age, gender, sex, status, role, personality, relationship w/ group, self concept, emotional/physical climate, etc.
Effective delivery
Natural, enthusiastic, confident, direct
Dynamic Delivery
Stimulate visual and auditory fields, varied sensory input, movement, vocal tone and rhythm