How to formulate an organizing question?
1. When answered, it indicates the ideas and formation necessary to develop your speech topic
2. The answer should suggest a patter, or several possible patterns of organization
Organization Structure: Topical Division
Most widely used - creates subtopics, categories that constitute the larger topic
Organization Structure: Chronological
Follows a time sequence
- appropriate for dealing with historical periods
- best for explaining procedures or processes
Organization Structure: Spatial
When main points are organized according to their physical proximity or geography
- appropriate for a speech discussing the parts of an object or place
Organization Structure: Causal
To trace a condition or action from its causes to its effects, or from effect back to cause
Organization Structure: Pro-Con
Presents both sides of controversial issues
Organization Structure: Mnemonic or Gimmick
Organizes a speech according to a memory device
- uses rhyme or the letters of a key word to organize main points
Organization Structure: Problem-Solution Division
Simple, rigid approach for persuasive speeches
- only for speeches to persuade
Organization Structure: Need-Plan
Is a variation on the Problem-Solution format
- only for speeches to persuade
4 S's Strategy
Signpost
State
Support
Summarize
Signpost
Words such as "initially", "first", "second", "finally"
- not words like "next
State
- Should clearly state the point you will develop
- Should usually be worded as complete sentences
- Should be concise
- Should summarize the speech
Support
- The "meat" of the 4 S's
- Supporting materials can include examples, definitions, comparisons, narratives, statistics, etc.
Summarize
Should reinforce the point you have just developed and also provide a note of closure for that key idea
Complementary Transitions
Add one idea to another
- also, and, in addition, just as important, likewise, next, not oly
Causal Transitions
Emphasize a cause-effect relation between ideas
- as a result, because, consequently, therefore
Contrasting Transitions
Show how two ideas differ
- although, but, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand
Chronological Transitions
Show the time relationships between ideas
- After, as soon as, at last, at the same time, before, later, while
Example of Topical
- Industrial air pollution
- Automobile air pollution
- Air pollution attributed to natural causes
Example of Chronological
- Air pollution in the 1950's
- Air pollution in the 1960's
- Air pollution in the 1970's
Example of Spatial
- Air pollution in the West Coast
- Air pollution in the East Coast
- Air pollution in the Gulf Coast
Example of Complementary Transition
In addition to baking banana muffins this morning, I also drank a smoothie.
Example of Causal Transition
Because of the potentially harmful consequences, lastly we need to pay care attention to the warning label.
Example of Contrasting Transition
On the other hand, when we finally move to the legendary Mansfield Room of the mansion you will see a 16th century painting.
Example of Chronological Transition
After adding the dry ingredients to the liquid mixture, we are ready to move to the third major step of the procedure which is to pour the combination into a muffin pan.
Speech Preparation and Delivery Tips
- Rehearse out loud
- Always deliver your speech with the same notecards with which you rehearsed
- Rehearse your speech standing up using 90% of your eye contact on the imaginary audience
- Don't write your speech out word for word on your notecards
- Hi
Guidelines for building speaker confidence
1. Know how you react to stress
2. Know your strengths and weaknesses
3. Know speech principles
4. Know that it always looks worse from the inside
5. Know your speech
6. Believe in your topic
7. View speech making positively
8. VISUALIZE SUCCESS
9. Projec
Attention Getters
1. Question your audience
2. Arouse your audience's curiosity
3. Stimulate your audience's imagination
4. Promise your audience something beneficial
5. Amuse your audience
6. Energize your audience
7. Acknowledge and compliment your audience
8. Use a quot
Organizing the Introduction of the Speech
1. Get the attention of your audience
2. State your topic
3. Establish the importance of your topic
4. Establish your credibility to speak on your topic
5. Preview your key ideas
Organizing the Conclusion of the Speech
1. Summarize your key ideas
2. Activate audience response
3. Provide closure
Clincher
Final sentence or sentences that reinforce your main points in a memorable way
- Can be a quote, but must be spot on
Don't use notecards during...
- Intro
- Conclusion
- Or when introducing a new main point
- When using presentational aids
4 Things that Indicate Conclusion
- Pause
- Slow rate of speech
- More closer to listeners
- Direct eye contact
Basic Guidelines for Presentation of an Award
1. State the purpose of the award or recognition
2. State the recipient's qualifications
3. Adapt your speech's organization to audience knowledge
4. Compliment finalists for the award
Basic Guidelines for Acceptance Speech
1. Thank those who bestowed the award
2. Compliment the competition
3. Thank those who helped you attain the award
4. Accept the award graciously
What are the main principles of outlining
- each symbol, letter, or number, represents only 1 idea
- any point that is subdivided must have at least two subpoints
What are the three stages of outlining?
1. Working outline
2. Formal outline
3. Speaking outline
Working Outline
A rough list of points and subpoints to help the speaker narrow and focus the topic
Formal Outline
A sentence outline reflecting the full content and organization of your speech for any interested reader
Speaking Outline
A skeletal version of the Formal Outline, including notations about sources and delivery, to be used in delivering the speech
- your notecards
How to use words effectively?
- Use specific, concrete words
- Use simple words
- Use words correctly
Written Style vs. Oral Style
- Audience is different
- Writing (you can erase what you've written)
- You can use delivery techniques when speaking
- When speaking you use more colloquiums, slang, contractions but not when writing
- Written sentences tend to be longer
- Oral style, we
Words you write, but don't use in speeches
- Furthermore
- Moreover
- Thus
- Hence
- Henceforth
- Therefore (some expectations)
Denotation
Literal meaning or dictionary definition of a word
Connotation
Meaning we associate with a word, based on our past experiences
Parallelism
- It is injured, it is sick, but it is not dead.
- We will walk on our feet; we will work with our own hands; we will speak our own minds.
Language Style
- Use language inclusively
- Use active language
- Create vivid sensory images
- Create figurative images
- Create Drama
- Create Cadence
Use language inclusively
- Avoid using language that is gender bias
- Use the "people first" rule (a person with diabetes, a person with epilepsy)
Use active language
Use "The Student Government Association decided to delay the election for one week" instead of "It was decided by the Student Government Association that the election would be delayed for one week
Metaphor
An implied comparison of two things WITHOUT the use of "as" or "like
Simile
A direct comparison between two things that USES the words "like" or "as
Personification
The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas
Metaphor Example
Remember that America cannot lead in the world unless here at home we weave the threads of our coat of many colors into the fabric of one America.
Simile Example
Trying to pin the Senator down on the issue is like trying to nail a poached egg to a tree.
Personification Example
Nature still offers her bounty and human efforts have multiplied it. Plenty is at our doorstep.
How to create drama
- Use a short sentence to express a vitally important thought: "And the war came."
- Omission: leaving out a word or phrase that the listener expects to hear
- Inversion: technique of reversing the normal word order of a phrase or sentence. "This much we
Creating Cadence
- Parallelism
- Antithesis
- Repetition
- Alliteration
Antithesis
- A two-part parallel structure in which the second part contrasts in meaning with the first
- An antithetical statement is a good way to end the speech
- Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country
Repetition
- Emphasizing a key word or phrase by using it more than once
- The war is inevitable - and let it come! I repeat it, sir, let it come!
Alliteration
Repetition of a consonant sound
- Discipline and direction
- Confidence and courage
- Virility, valour, and civic virtue
What functions do presentational aids serve?
1. Increase message clarity
2. Reinforce message impact
3. Increase speaker dynamism
4. Enhance speaker confidence
Types of Presentational Aids
- Objects
- Graphics
- Projections
- Electronic Graphics
- Handouts
- Audio/Video
Tips for designing slides
- Use landscape
- Keep text in top 2/3 of the slide
- Focus on key points
- Choose fonts that maximize readability
Strategies for using presentation aids before the speech
- Determine the information to be presented visually
- Select the type of aid best suited to your resources and speech
- Ensure easy viewing for all audience members
- Be certain that the presentational aid communicates the information clearly
- Construct
Strategies for using presentational aids during the delivery of a speech
- Reveal the presentational aid only when you are ready for it
- Talk to your audience, not your presentational aid
- Keep your presentational aid in view until your audience understands your point
- Conceal the presentational aid after you have made your
Definitions of Communication
- Communication occurs when meaning is shared
- Communication is both a process and a product
What do we remember?
- 10% of what we read
- 70% of what we speak
- 20% of what we hear
- 30% of what we see
Process of Communication
Involves sending and receiving symbolic cues
Produce of Effective Communication
Meaning shared among communicators
OVERALL COMMUNiCATION IS...
The sharing of meaning by sharing and receiving symbolic cues
Ogden and Richards' "Triangle of Meaning
A model of how people share meaning through language
- Interpreter
- Symbol
- Referent
Interpreter
The person who is communicating
Symbol
Is anything to which people assign meaning
- Includes words, diagrams, colors, objects, shapes, gestures
- Symbols have no meaning, but are invested with meaning by the interpreters who use them
Referent
Is the object or concept that a symbol evokes in the mind of an interpreter
Levels of Communication
- Intrapersonal
- Interpersonal
- Group
- Public
- Mass
Intrapersonal
Communication is communication with yourself
- Talking to ourselves
- Thoughts
Interpersonal
Involves two people
- Face to face
- Phone
- Texting
- Skyping
Group
When communication occurs when three or more individuals interact and influence each other in pursuit of a common goal
Public
Involves one person communicating face to face with an audience
Mass
Involves one person or group communicating with many people through some print or electronic medium
- Audience feedback is delayed
Elements of Communication
- Speaker
- Message
- Listener/Decoder/Receiver
- Feedback
- Channel or Medium
- Environment
- Noise
Speaker
Encoding is the process the speaker uses when putting ideas into symbols
Message
Ideas actually communicated
Listener, Decoder, or Receiver
Decoding involves attaching meaning to the words, gestures, and voice inflections received
Feedback
- Interactions between listeners and senders provide feedback
- Includes all messages, verbal and nonverbal, sent by listeners to speakers
Channel and Medium
The way the message is sent
Environment
1. Occasion during which the communication occurs
2. Physical setting where the communication occurs
Noise
Anything that distracts from effective communication
- Physical: that which occurs in the physical environment (fan, cold room)
- Physiological: that which is tied to bodily conditions (headaches, fever)
- Psychological: that which refers to mental distra
Three Purposes of Informative Speeches
1. To impart knowledge
2. To enhance the audience's understanding of a topic
3. To help the audience apply informaiton
Guidelines for Speaking to Inform
- Be clear
- Be concise
- Be accurate
- Use effective delivery
Six Responsibilities of Ethical Speakers
- Speak up about topics you consider important
- Choose topics that promote positive ethical values
- Speak to benefit your listeners
- Use truthful, accurate supporting material and valid reasoning
- Consider the consequences of your words and actions
-
4 Responsibilities of Ethical Listeners
- Seek exposure to well-informed speakers who can expand their knowledge, increase their understanding, introduce them to new ideas
- Avoid prejudging speakers of their ideas
- Evaluate the speaker's logic and credibility
- Beware of the consequences of n
Plagiarism
The unattributed use of another person's ideas, words, or pattern of organization
5 Simple Rules to Avoid Plagiarism
1. Take clear and consistent notes while researching
2. Record complete source citations
3. Clearly indicate in your speech any words, ideas, examples, or organizational structures that are not your own
4. Use your own words, language style, and thought s
Different Types of Topics
- Self-Generated
- Audience-Generated
- Occasion-Generated
- Research-Generated
Self-Generated
Speech subjects based on the speaker's interests, experiences, and knowledge
Audience-Generated
Speech subjects geared to the interests and needs of a speakers listeners
Occassion-Generated
Speech subjects derived from particular circumstances, seasons, holidays, or life events
Research-Generated
Speech subjects discovered by investigating a variety of sources
Brainstorming
Nnoncritical free association to generate as many ideas as possible in a short time
Visual Brainstorming
Informal written outline achieved by free associating around a key word or idea
General Purpose
The broad goal of a speech, such as:
- To inform
- To entertain
- To persuade
Specific Purpose
A statement of the general purpose of the speech, the speaker's intended audience, and the limited goal or outcome
Thesis Statement
A one-sentence synopsis of a speaker's message
To develop your specific purpose statement
1. State your general purpose
2. Name your intended audience
3. State the goal of your speech
Magazine/Journal Article
Tell us that it is an article, title of the magazine or journal, the author's name, and credentials, and the date of the publication
Newspaper Article
Tell us that it is an article, the name of the newspaper, the author's name and credentials (if other than a staff writer), and the date of the issue you are citing
Website
Tell us the title of the web page, the name of the individual, agency, association, group, or company sponsoring the site, and the date of publication, last update, or the date you accessed it
Book
Tell us that it's a book, the author's name(s) and credentials, the book's title, and the date of publication
Interview You Conducted
Tell us that you interviewed the person, the person's name, and his or her position or title
Television or Radio Program
Tell us the title of the show, the channel, or network airing it, and the date of broadcast
Videotape or DVD
Tell us the title of the tape or disk and the date of publication
Reference Work
Tell us the title of the work and the date of publication
Government Document
Tell us the title of the document, the name of the agency or government branch that published it, and the date of publication
Brochure or Pamphlet
Tell us that its is a brochure, its title, the name of the agency, association, group, or company that published it, and the date of publication (if available)
Definition of Persuasion
The process of influencing another person's values, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors
Types of Persuasive Speeches
- Speeches to convince
- Speeches to actuate
- Speeches to inspire
Speeches to Convince
Seek to affect your listeners' beliefs or attitudes
Speeches to Actuate
May affect beliefs, but always call for the audience to act
Speeches to Inspire
Attempt to change how listeners feel
The Rhetoric
Ethos
Logos
Pathos
Ethos
Speaker credibility, derives from the character and reputation of the speaker
Logos
Logical appeal, relies on the form and substance or an argument
Pathos
Emotional appeal, taps the values and feelings or an audience
Types of Credibility
Initial: your image or reputation prior to speaking
Derived: the image the audience develops of you as you speak
Terminal: the image the audience has of you after your speech
What makes you credible?
Conveying competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism
Focus Your Goals
1. Limit your goals - persuasion is more likely if your goals are limited
2. Argue incrementally - persuasion is more permanent if you achieve it incrementally
Connection with Listeners
Persuasion is more likely if a speaker establishes common ground with the audience
- Assess listener's knowledge of your topic
- Assess how important your audience considers your topic
- Motivate your listeners
- Relate your message to listeners' values
Organize Your Arguments
Primacy Theory
Recency Theory
Primacy Theory
Recommends that you put your strongest argument first
Recency Theory
Recommends you put your strongest argument last
Importance of Elizabeth Dole Speech
Enhanced her connection with her audience by:
- Touching
- Proximity to audience
- Came down off the podium
Totally changed the dynamics of public speaking
Steps of an Argument
1. Make a claim
2. Offer evidence
3. Show how the evidence proves the claim
Refuting an Argument
1. State the position you are refuting
2. State your position
3. Support your position
4. Show how your position undermines the opposing argument
Types of Argument
- Example
- Analogy
- Cause
- Deduction
- Authority
Argument by Example
Uses a few instances to assert a broader claim
- Inductive reasoning
- Type of argument is valid only if you can answer yes to each of these four tests of argument:
1. Are the examples true?
2. Are the examples relevant?
3. Are the examples sufficient?
4.
Argument by Analogy
- Links two objects or concepts and asserts that what is true of one will be true of the other
- Is appropriate when the program you advocate or oppose has been tried elsewhere
To test the validity of your argument by analogy, ask two questions:
1. Are th
Argument by Cause
- Connects two elements or events and claims that one is produced by the other
- Causal reasoning can take two forms:
1. Effect-to-cause
2. Cause-to-effect
Argument by Deduction
- Moves from a general category to a specific instance
- Consists of a pattern of three statements, or a SYLLOGISM
- Use the following steps to check the structure of your deductive argument:
1. State your major premise
2. Say "because" and then state you
Syllogism
1. Major premise
2. Minor premise
3. Conclusion
Major Premise
A claim about a general group of people, events, or conditions
Minor Premise
Places a person, event, or condition into a general class
Conclusion
Argues that what is true of the general class is true of the specific instance or individual
Argument by Authority
- Uses testimony from an expert source to prove a speaker's claim
- It's validity depends on the credibility the authority has for the audience
- To test your argument, ask two questions:
1. Is the source an expert?
2. Is the source unbiased?
Examples of Syllogisms
1. All Gods are immortal.
2. Zeus is a God.
3. Zeus is immortal
1. All W&M students are human.
2. Tommy is a W&M student.
3. Tommy is human.
Fallacies of Arguments
Fallacy = a flaw in the logic of an argument
- Hasty generalizations
- False analogy
- Post hoc ergo propter hoc
- Slippery slope
- Red herring
- Appeal to tradition
- False dilemma
- False authority
- Bandwagon
- Ad Hominem
Hasty Generalization
- Faulty form of argument by example
- Occurs when a speaker makes a claim form insufficient or unrepresentative examples
- What distinguishes valid from fallacious inductive proof is the quantity or quality of examples
False Analogy
Occurs when an Argument by Analogy compares entities that have critical differences
- Apples and oranges comparison
Post Hoc Propter Hoc
After this, therefore because of this"
- A chronological fallacy that assumes that because one event preceded another, the first caused the second
- Superbowl theory: depending on what league wins the Superbowl will predict how the stock market goes
Slippery Slope
A fallacy of causation that asserts that one action inevitably sets in motion a chain of events or indicates a trend
- Used by politicians a lot
- Ski slope example: if Tommy slips then he could take everyone down with him, like an avalance
Red Herring
A faulty argument by deduction that introduces an irrelevant issue to deflect attention from the subject under discussion
- Student charged with plagiarism and stays "I was a boy scout
Appeal to Tradition
Defends the status quo and opposes change by arguing that old ways are always superior to new ones
False Dilemma
- Also known as the "either-or fallacy"
- Occurs when a speaker presents the listener with only two choices when, in reality, there are more
- Characterized by a "bumper sticker" mentality
- Example: Stand with America or stand for terrorism
False Authority
- An invalid form of argument by authority
- Uses testimony from sources that have no real expertise on the topic or issue in question
Bandwagon
- A faulty argument by authority
- Assumes that popular opinion is an accurate measure of truth and wisdom
- Frequently referred to as the "everybody's doing it" fallacy
- Examples: "everyone knows" "most people agree
Ad Hominem
- Meaning "to the man"
- Asks listeners to reject an idea because of the allegedly poor character of the person advocating it
Proposition
A declarative statement that expresses a judgment that the speaker wants listeners to accept
How do propositions differ from a thesis statement?
- Expresses a judgment
- Thesis statement lists the reasons the speaker is offering to prove the proposition
Example of a Proposition
P: The new campus classroom building should be named Richter Hall.
T: The new classroom building should be named for Louise Richter, an outstanding teacher, advisor, and friend.
Characteristics of Propositions
- Expresses a judgment
- Are debatable
- Require proof
Types of Propositions
- Fact
- Value
- Policy
Propositions of Fact
Focuses on belief
- Example: Electric automobiles are commercially feasible
Propositions of Value
Requires a judgment on the worth of an idea or action
- Example: The death penalty for juveniles is cruel and unusual punishment
Propositions of Policy
Advocates a course of action
- You ask the audience to endorse a policy or to commit themselves to some action
- Usually includes the word "should"
- Example: Students should be able to repay student loans through community service.
Methods of Delivery
- Impromptu
- Memory
- Extemporaneously
- Manuscript