Ethos
name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility
Listeners persuaded by one or more of four reasons
1. bc they perceive speaker as having high credibility 2. bc they are won over by speaker's evidence 3. bc they are convinced by speaker's reasoning 4. bc their emotions are touched by speaker's ideas or language
Affect speaker's credibility
1. sociability 2. dynamism 3. physical attractiveness 4. perceived similarity btwn speaker and audience
Credibility is affected by two factors
1. competence - how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of subject 2. character - how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for well-being of audience
Credibility
audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. the two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character
Initial credibility
credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak
Derived credibility
credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during during speech
Terminal credibility
credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech
Enhancing your credibility
1. explain your competence 2. establish common ground with your audience 3. deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction
Creating common ground
technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience
Evidence
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
How evidence works: a case study
page 337
Tips for using evidence
1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence
Logos
name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. the two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning
Reasoning
process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
Reasoning from specific instances
reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion
Reasoning from principle
reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion
Causal reasoning
reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship btwn causes and effects
Analogical reasoning
reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second
Fallacy
an error in reasoning
Hasty generalization
a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
False cause
a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second
Invalid analogy
analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike
Bandwagon
a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable
Red herring
a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion
Ad hominem
a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute
Either-or
a fallacy that forces listeners to choose btwn two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist
Slippery slope
a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented
Appeal to tradition
a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new
Appeal to novelty
a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old
Pathos
named used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal
Generating emotional appeal
1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction