I=PxAxT
Environmental Impact= Population x Affluence x Population
Convection cells
Cause distribution of climates resulting in forests, grassland and deserts
Tropical deserts
desert where it is hot and dry most of the year. They have few plants, and a hard, windblown surface strewn with rocks and some sand (ex. Sahara)
Temperate deserts
daytime temperature is high in summer and low in winter, with more precipitation than tropical deserts. sparse and dispersed vegetation (shrubs,succulents and cacti)
Cold deserts
desert where vegetation is sparse. Winters are cold, summers are warm or hot, and precipitation is low, and vegetation is sparse (ex. Gobi Desert).
Tropical Grassland
Warm temperatures throughout year. Dry and wet seasons. Tall grasses scattered trees and shrubs
Temperate Grassland
winters can be bitterly cold, summers are hot and dry, and annual precipitation is fairly sparse and falls unevenly throughout the year. Many have been converted to farmland because of their fertile soil (ex. North America/Canada).
evergreen coniferous forests
Subarctic climate, winters long and dry, summers are short with cool to warm climate. Coastal ones have ample rainfall
Plankton
Tiny organisms that float in the water
Nekton
strongly swimming consumers such as fish, turtles, and whales
Benthos
Bottom-dwelling organisms.
Coastal zone
Warm, nutrient-rich, shallow part of the ocean that extends from the high-tide mark on land to the edge of a shelflike extension of continental land masses known as the continental shelf.
Estuaries
A bay or drowned valley where a river empties into the sea
Coastal wetlands
coastal land areas covered with water all or part of the year
intertidal zone
the area of shoreline between low and high tides
Euphotic zone
Upper layer of a body of water through which sunlight can penetrate and support photosynthesis.
bathayal zone
dimly lit middle zone that does not contain photosynthesizing producers because of lack of sunlight. Zooplankton and smaller fish populate this zone.
Abyssal zone
deepest, very cold region of the open ocean
El Nino
A band of anomalously warm ocean temperatures that occasionally develops off the western coast of South America
La Nina
A climate event in the eastern Pacific Ocean in which surface waters are colder than normal.
littoral zone
near sore consists of shallow sunlit waters to depth penetrated by sunlight
profundal zone
a region of water where sunlight does not reach, below the limnetic zone in very deep lakes
Benthic zone
the muddy bottom of a lake
Eutrophic lake
Lake with a large or excessive supply of plant nutrients, mostly nitrates and phosphates.
cultural eutrophication
Overnourishment of aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients (mostly nitrates and phosphates) because of human activities
mesotrophic lake
Lake with a moderate supply of plant nutrients.
Watershed
Land area that delivers water, sediment, and dissolved substances via small streams to a major stream (river).
Zones of watershed
source zone, transition zone, floodplain zone
Troposphere
The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere
Stratosphere
The second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, contains ozone layer
Thermosphere
The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere.
Mesosphere
The layer of Earth's atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere
Chemosynthesis
Process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates
aerobic respiration
uses oxygen to convert glucose back into carbon dioxide and water
anaerobic respiration
Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid.
Biomass
A measure of the total dry mass of organisms within a particular region
gross primary productivity
The total amount of solar energy that producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time
net primary productivity
The energy captured by producers in an ecosystem minus the energy producers respire
Nitrification
ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-).
nitrogen fixation
Process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia
Ammonification
The process by which fungal and bacterial decomposers break down the organic nitrogen found in dead bodies and waste products and convert it into inorganic ammonium
Denitrification
Conversion of nitrates into nitrogen gas
interspecific competition
competition between members of different species
Parasitism
A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed
Mutualism
A relationship between two species in which both species benefit
Commensalism
an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm.
resource partitioning
When species divide a niche to avoid competition for resources
Coevolution
the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution.
Genetic diversity
The range of genetic material present in a gene pool or population of a species.
theory of island biogeography
demonstrates the dual importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness
Mutation
change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information (RANDOM)
differential reproduction
organisms with the best adaptations are most likely to survive and reproduce
Speciation
Species splits into two or more different species
geographic isolation
isolation between populations due to physical barriers
reproductive isolation
Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring
endemic species
species that are native to and found only within a limited area
Generalist species
species with a broad ecological niche
Specialist species
species with a narrow ecological niche
invasive species
plants and animals that have migrated to places where they are not native, can harm native species and compete with them for resources
indicator species
Species that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded.
keystone species
a species that has an unusually large effect on its ecosystem
Foundation species
Species that plays a major role in shaping communities by creating habitat
Keystone vs foundation
foundation species provide literal foundation while keystone species do this and play active role
Range of tolerance
tolerance to variations in its physical and chemical environment
Limiting factor
Any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms.
limiting factor principle
too much or too little of any physical or chemical factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance
Environmental resistance
All the limiting factors that act together to limit the growth of a population.
Carrying capacity
The largest population that an area can support indefinitely
Reproductive time lag
the period needed for the birth rate to fall and the death rate to rise in response to resource overconsumption
primary ecological succession
ecological succession in an area without soil or bottom sediments
secondary ecological succession
a series of communities or ecosystems with different species develop in places containing soil or bottom sediment
Inertia/persistence
ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances
Resilience
ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a moderate disturbance
Facilation
One set of species makes an area suitable for species
metapopulation
a group of spatially distinct populations that are connected by occasional movements of individuals between them
R-selected
Species that reproduce early in their life span and produce large numbers of usually small and short-lived offspring in a short period.
K-selected
organisms that reproduce later in life, produce fewer offspring, and devote significant time and energy to the nurturing of their offspring.
Population change equation
(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)
Replacement level fertility
The number of children that a woman/couple must have in order to replace themselves
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
The average number of children born to a woman during her childbearing years.
infant mortality rate
The percentage of children who die before their first birthday within a particular area or country.
Child Mortality Rate
the number of deaths of children under age 5 per 1,000 live births
Migration rate
immigration rate minus emigration rate
Population growth rate equation
new population divided by old population, label final answer with percent, round to 4 digits after decimal point
Doubling time
70/growth rate
population density
population/area label final answer as thing per area squared
demographic transition
as countries become industrialized, first their death rates and then their birth rates decline (Four stages: Pre-industrial, transitional, industrial, post-industrial).
Soil layers (top to bottom)
O Horizon- mostly organic matter, leaf litter
A Horizon- topsoil, dark-rich organic matter and humus
B Horizon- subsoil, light-colored, rich in iron, aluminum, clay
C Horizon- bedrock, least organic matter
Waterlogging
water accumulates underground and gradually raises the water table
core
Earth's innermost layer, extremely hot and has solid inner part surrounded by core of molten or semisolid material
Mantle
Zone of solid rock surrounding core, under rigid most outermost part is asthenosphere
Asthenosphere
the upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, in which there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur.
Crust
The layer of rock that forms Earth's outer surface.
Lithosphere
The combination of the upper mantle and the crust that moves with tectonic plates
Convection cells in the mantle
Move large volumes of hear and rock in loops within the mantle
Subduction
Continental plate rides over denser ocean plate and pushes it down into the mantle
external geologic processes
driven directly or indirectly by energy from the sun (mostly in the form of flowing water and wind) and influenced by gravity, tend to wear down the earth's surface and move matter from one place to another (weathering, erosion, erosion by glaciers)
focus
Far below earth's surface where earthquake begins
Epicenter
Point on Earth's surface directly above an earthquake's focus
seismic waves
Release of earth's internal stress that move forward and onward from focus
mineral
A solid inorganic substance of natural occurrence.
sedimentary rock
A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together
igneous rock
rock that forms when magma cools and solidifies
metamorphic rock
A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.
divergent boundary
A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other.
convergent boundary
A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other.
transform boundary
plates slide past each other
Ozone layer
a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun
Mineral resource
Concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material in or on the earth's crust in a form and amount such that extracting and converting it into useful materials or items is currently or potentially profitable. Mineral resources are cla
Metallic minerals
Shiny minerals, like gold and iron, that can conduct heat and electricity
Nonmetallic minerals
have shiny or dull surfaces, may let light pass through them, and are good insulators of electricity (Sand, limestone)
High grade ore
Ore containing a large concentration of a desired mineral.
low-grade ore
contains a smaller concentration of the desired mineral
Reserves
identified resources from which we can extract the mineral profitably at current prices
surface mining
- Shallow deposits removed
- Overburden removed first
- Spoils: waste material
open pit mining
Dig holes in order to extract metal ore
Strip mining
horizontal beds close to the surface used mainly for coal
subsurface mining
underground mineral resources are removed through tunnels and shafts, least damaging to land around it
area strip mining
Type of surface mining used where the terrain is flat. An earthmover strips away the overburden, and a power shovel digs a cut to remove the mineral deposit. After removal of the mineral, the trench is filled with overburden, and a new cut is made paralle
contour strip mining
Form of surface mining used on hilly or mountainous terrain. A power shovel cuts a series of terraces into the side of a hill. An earthmover removes the overburden, and a power shovel extracts the coal. The overburden from each new terrace is dumped onto
mountaintop removal
miners remove the entire top of a mountain with explosives to reach coal seams. Most damaging method of mining
strategic metal resources
manganese, cobalt, chromium, and platinum
Nanotechnology
the branch of engineering that deals with things smaller than 100 nanometers (especially with the manipulation of individual molecules)
old-growth forest
a forest that has never been logged
second-growth forest
a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession
tree plantation
Site planted with one or only a few tree species in an even-aged stand. When the stand matures it is usually harvested by clear-cutting and then replanted. These farms normally are used to grow rapidly growing tree species for fuelwood, timber, or pulpwoo
Selective cutting
cutting down only intermediate aged trees in a forest and leaving a mix of tree sizes and species behind
Strip cutting
clear-cutting a strip of trees along the contour of land within a corridor narrow enough to allow natural regeneration
Surface fires vs crown fires
surface fires usually burn undergrowth and can be beneficial to ecosystem if controlled, crown fires leap from treetop to treetop and can destroy most of ecosystem.
Sustainable Subsidies
Government subsidies today promote degradation by funding activities such as clear cutting, coal and nuclear power. We need to replace these with economic rewards that encourage people to be more sustainable.
food security
A condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life.
Food insecurity
The condition in which people live with chronic hunger and malnutrition
Micro and Macro Nutrients
Macronutrients are needed in large amounts (ex:protein) micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts (ex:Vitamin A)
chronic undernutrition (hunger)
Cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs
chronic malnutrition
deficiencies of protein and other key nutrients
Famine
an extreme shortage of food
Anemia
lack of a normal number of red blood cells, caused by a lack of iron
Goiter
enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by lack of iodine
Overnutrition
excess energy or nutrients
Aquaculture
Raising marine and freshwater fish in ponds and underwater cages
Feedlots
Places where livestock are concentrated in a very small area and raised on hormones and hearty grains that prepare them for slaughter at a much more rapid rate than grazing; often referred to as factory farms.
industrialized agriculture
Uses heavy equipment and large amounts of financial capital, fossil fuel, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce single crops (monoculture).
plantation agriculture
Growing specialized crops (cash crops) such as bananas, coffee, and cacao in tropical developing countries, primarily for sale to developed countries.
traditional intensive agriculture
Farmers increase their inputs of human and draft-animal labor, fertilizer, and water to obtain higher crop yields.
polyculture
growing several crops on the same plot simultaneously
slash and burn agriculture
a farming technique in which trees are cut down and burned to clear and fertilize the land and using until soil is depleted of nutrients
broad-spectrum pesticide
a pesticide that kills many different types of pests
selective spectrum agents
Effective against defined organisms
persistence
the length of time a chemical remains in the environment
circle of poison/boomerang effect
residues of some banned or unapproved chemicals exported to other countries can return to the exporting countries on imported food
Intergrated Pest Management (IPM)
Minimizes the use of pesticides and the risk to human health and the environment associated with pesticide applications
Terracing
Carving small, flat plots of land from hillsides to use for farming
Contour planting
plowing and planting crops in rows across the slope of the land, opposite to the direction of water flow, to reduce soil erosion and water runoff
strip cropping
planting alternating rows of different crops
alley cropping
Planting of crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side.
Tillage farming
Crop cultivation method in which a planting surface is made by plowing land, breaking up the exposed soil, and then smoothing the surface.
organic fertilizer
fertilizer composed of organic matter from plants and animals
inorganic fertilizer
A fertilizer that consists of mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements
Polyaquaculture
Raise fish or shrimp along with algae, seaweeds, and shelfish in coastal lagoons, ponds, and tanks
perennial crops
crops that grow back year after year on their own
zone of saturation
lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water
Aquifers
a body of permeable rock that can contain or transmit groundwater.
water table
the top of the saturated zone
Virtual water
Water that is not directly consumed but is used to produce food and other products.
Desalination
process of removing salt from salt water
reverse osmosis (microfiltration)
uses high pressure to force saltwater through a membrane filter with pores small enough to remove the salt
drip irrigation
a method of supplying irrigation water through tubes that literally drip water onto the soil at the base of each plant. Most efficient method.
low-pressure sprinkler
deliver water directly to crops
flood irrigation
water is poured through canals and waterways so that it flows through fields
Net energy
Total amount of useful energy available from an energy resource or energy system over its lifetime, minus the amount of energy used (the first energy law), automatically wasted (the second energy law), and unnecessarily wasted in finding, processing, conc
first law of thermodynamics
Takes high quality energy to get high quality energy
second law of thermodynamics
when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)
Most environmental beneficial source of energy
Cutting energy waste
Unconventional heavy oil
Thick oil extracted from tar sands and shale rocks
Peak production
time after which production from a well declines. Global peak production will be when we have reached the maximum rates of oil production for the whole world.
Petrochemicals
Certain products from crude oil distillation.
proven oil reserves
Identified deposits from which conventional crude oil can be extracted profitably at current prices with current technology.
unproven oil reserves
Probable reserves: 50% chance of recovery
Possible reserves: 10-40% chance of recovery
tar sands
rock or sand layers that contain oil called bitumen.
oil shales
Sedimentary 'oily rocks' that contain a mixture of hydrocarbons known as kerogen. Can be used to create shale oil.
Natural gas
a mixture of methane and other gases
Coal power plant cycle
Mine coal, burn coal, results in coal ash, and heat water to burn steam, steam turns turbine then generates electricity. After buning coal, smoke is filtered and released into the atmosphere and releases CO2 SO2 Mecury and Acid rain and soot. High net ene
Coal Ash
Contains arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, mecury, and radium. Possible ways to dispose: bury it, dump it, slurry pond, concrete and asphalt. Groundwater concern.
Nuclear Power plant cycle
Mine uranium, process uranium, fuel rods in containment shell, heat produced heats water, which creates steam that turns turbine to create electricity. Steam can be converted back to cool water and heat pollution. Spent fuel rods have to be stored for tho
synthetic natural gas
solid coal turned into gas by coal gasification
Types of coal
-peat (not coal)
-Lignite (brown coal)
- Bituminous coal (soft coal with high sulfur)
-Anthracite (hard coal with low sulfur)
nuclear fusion
a nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a heavier nucleus with the release of energy.
passive solar heating
absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly within a structure without the need for pumps to distribute the heat
active solar heating
captures energy from the sun by pumping a heat-absorbing fluid through special collectors, usually mounted on a roof or on special racks to face the sun
PV cells
Device that converts radiant (solar) energy directly into electrical energy.
Biomass
Plant materials and animal waste used especially as a source of fuel when burned.
Biodiesel
A diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants
Ethanol
Can be made from plant's starches and has low net energy yield when made from corn, high yield from switchgrass
geothermal energy
energy stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth's mantle.
hydrogen fuel cell
generates electricity and water vapor by reacting hydrogen with oxygen. Has no direct carbon emissions if not produced from carbon-containing compounds. Has a negative net energy yield.