Physical geography
the study of physical features of the earth's surface, Branch of geography concerned with spatial analysis of the structures , processes, and locations of the Earth's natural phenomena, like soil, climate, plants, and topography.
Atmosphere
Air surrounding Earth;is made up of gases,including 78 percent nitrogen,21 percent oxygen,and 0.03 percent carbon dioxide., Air
hydrosphere
All the water at and near the surface of the earth, 97% of which is in oceans, Earth's water, , All the earth's solid and liquid water including all the oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, and water underground
biosphere
Consists of all life on Earth and all parts of the Earth in which life exists, including land, water, and the atmosphere.
lithosphere
Earth's solid, rocky outer layer, , A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust.
Earth-sun relationships
The position of the earth relative to the sun that helps to determine day and night, seasons, and time zones, the rotation and tilt of Earth on its axis and the revolution of Earth around the sun influence climate
seasons
Earth has seasons because its axis is tilted as it moves around the sun, Result from the earth's axis being tilted to its orbital plane, NOT the result of the variation in the earth's distance to the sun (Because of its elliptical orbit, the earth as a wh
revolution
Earth's yearlong elliptical orbit around the sun
rotation
Is Earth spinning around once every 24 hours, resulting in day and night. The earth rotates COUNTER-CLOCKWISE. Rotation of the earth on its axis causes DAY and NIGHT.
latitude
Distance north or south of the equator, parallels: Arctic circle, tropic of cancer, equator, tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic circle. Between 0-90 degrees north and 0-90 degrees south, you have to use north or south so you know what hemisphere it's in. y
longitude
meridans: you stop counting longitude at Greenwich, England, exact opposite is the international date line. Has to be measured in 0-180 East or 0-180 West
circle of illumination
edge of the sunlit hemisphere is a great circle that divides Earth between a light half and a dark half.
plane of the ecliptic
The plane that passes through the sun and earth, inscribing the orbital path of the earth around the sun, The flat plane on which the Earth travels as it revolves around the sun.
inclination of the axis
the tilt of Earth's axis from the perpendicular to the plane on Earth's orbit, The tilt of the Earth's axis that causes seasons, the tilt of Earth's axis from the perpendicular to the plane of Earth's orbit (plane of the ecliptic). Currently, the inclinat
equinoxes
March (sun is vertical to the equator). September (sun is vertical to the equator). 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night.
solstices
June solstice (vertical to the tropic of cancer, 23.5 degrees), December solstice (sun is vertical to the tropic of Capricorn).
Pedosphere
soil, the meeting place of earths lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, , The outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil.
Cryoshpere
glaciers, ice, sea ice
Radiosphere
(energy, light, solar energy)
great circles
Circles that pass through the center of the Earth and that divide the planet into equal halves
small circles
circles on the surface of the Earth formed by a plane that does not pass through the exact center of the Earth
earth's movements
The earth rotates west to east, looking down counter clockwise. One rotation in 24 hours. One revelation around the sun is 365.24 days. The orbit around sun is not a circle, it is an ellipse. We are closest to the sun on January 5th, the perihelion. The a
International Date Line
an imaginary line on the surface of the earth following (approximately) the 180th meridian,
An arc that for the most part follows 180� longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross the International Date Li
Equator
0 degrees latitude
An imaginary circle around the middle of the earth, halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole
9 Autumnal Equinox suns most direct rays shine on the....
Tropic of Cancer
23.5 degrees North
23 � ? N mark the boundaries of the places on the earth that receive the most direct sunlight and the greatest heat energy from the sun.
A line of latitude located at 23�30' north of the equator. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic
Tropic of Capricorn
23 1/2 Degrees South of the Equator
A line of latitude located at 23�30' south. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (Dec. 20 or 21). It marks the southernmost point of the tropics.
Artic Circle
66.5 degrees north
66.5 degrees north. experiences near total light during northern hemisphere summer. experiences near total darkness during northern hemisphere winter.
Antarctic Circle
66.5 degrees South
66.5 S, gets sunlight from fall equinox to spring equinox
66.5 degrees S. Shortest Day: June 21. Longest: Dec. 21
66 1/2 degrees South summer solstice 24 hrs darkness.
map projections
a way of representing the spherical Earth on a flat surface
Conic, cylindrical, interrupted, and plane
remote sensing
A method of collecting data or information through the use of instruments (e.g., satellites) that are physically distant from the area or object of study.
geographic information systems
GIS,
a computer system that can capture, store, query, analyze, and display geographic data
(GIS) A collection of computer hardware and software that permits spatial data to be collected, recorded, stored, retrieved, manipulated, analyzed, and displayed t
Map
a pictorial or graphic representation of earth or a selected portion of the earth.
Serves two functions: reduce size of area of interest to size of sheet of paper desired. Simplify patterns by showing only those phenomena desired by cartographer.
Scale
ratio between distance on mop and corresponding distance on the earth's surface. Expresses the extent of reductions of the map from reality.
Three ways: verbal, graphic, and representative fraction.
Cartography
The art and science of mapmaking
Methods of portraying the earth's surface
...
Isoline maps
maps that use lines to represent quantities of equal value (topographic map: each line represents a constant elevation; lines spaced close together indicate a rapidly changing value, whereas lines far apart indicate little change over space; can be used t
Atmospheric composition
nitrogen 78.08%, oxygen 20.95, argon .93, carbon dioxide .04
heterosphere- outer atmosphere; 80km outwards to the thermosphere; layers of gases sorted by gravit
Vertical structure
determines weather and climate,
silos
result of changes in a gradient of light
Trophosphere- extenders from the surface to about 11 miles near the equator. Temperature decreases with altitude at a lapse rate of 3.5 f. 90% of the atmosphere's mass. Tropopa
denisity
The measurement of how much mass of a substance is contained in a given volume.
pressure
Force per unit area.
Descending columns of cool air produce high pressure. Rising columns of low density, warm air produce low pressure.
temperature
A measure of how hot (or cold) something is; specifically, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object.
what causes temperature
the tilt and orbit of Earth
it gets cooler as you move farther from the surface, when the sun warms the earth & a thin layer of air near the surface is warmed up it raises until it cools down to a temperature equal to the surrounding air masses
change in altitude
examples of pressure change
How do you calculate a gradient?
four elements of weather (temporary) and climate (permanent)
Temperature, pressure, winds, moisture
climate controls
latitude, land and water differences, atmospheric circulation patterns, oceanic circulation patterns altitude, topographic barriers, storm patterns, earth movements, earth-sun relationships, latent heat transfer Energy, Temperature, and Insolation
latent heat
heat absorbed or radiated during a change of phase at a constant temperature and pressure
Extra thermal energy contained in water vapor compared to liquid water
insolation
Heating of the Earth's surface by sun's rays.
nuclear fusion
A nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a heavier nucleus with the release of energy
Electromagnetic radiation
A form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space.
electromagnetic spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
shortwave energy
shortwave energy transmitted through atmosphere heats earth reradiated long wave energy from earth heats lower atmosphere
"visible
Insolation
Incoming solar radiation
radiation
Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles.
absorption
Colored object that obsorbs rays of light, which illuminate it while others are reflected
reflection
the light energy that bounces off objects
refraction
The bending of a wave as it passes at an angle from one medium to another
scattering
An interaction of light with matter that causes light to change its energy, direction of motion, or both
reflection of light in all directions
transmission
Describes the passage of shortwave and long wave energy; through the atmosphere or water
conduction
Form of heat transfer where heat energy is directly transferred between molecules through molecular collisions or direct contact.
convection
Process by which, in a fluid being heated, the warmer part of the mass will rise and the cooler portions will sink.
Flow of heat from the body surface to cooler ambient air. Two measures to reduce heat loss by this method would be to keep the ambient air
advection
(meteorology) the horizontal transfer of heat or other atmospheric properties
adiabatic heating and cooling
cooling by expansion, heating by compression
as air rises or lowers the pressure changes on it and its volume increase or decreases resulting in an increase or decrease in temp
albedo
Fraction of solar radiation reaching earth that is reflected back into space
Amount of sunlight that is reflected by the surface of a planet or a satellite, such as the Moon.
Seasonal variations in heating due to?
1. Lower angle of incidence due to seasonal changes in earth-sun relationship, 2. Variations in length of day, 3. Greater thickness of atmosphere at lower angles of incidence
Global Energy Budget Income
equals outgo
Radiational cooling during night, winter
Mechanisms for transferring energy from areas of surplus to areas of deficit
Air and ocean circulation, latent heat transfer
Differential heating of land and water
Describes the reason Earth surfaces absorb heat at different rates*
low heat capacity=rock, high heat capacity=water.
specific heat of water three times that of land, heat only needs to hit the surface of land to heat it up, convection. It needs to penetr
Vertical temperature patterns
Series of temperature measurements taken at various levels in the atmosphere. Shows the thermal structure of the atmosphere over a specific location. Uses a Rawinsonde Sounding.
Thermal Stratification
environmental lapse rate
As you go up, the temperature gets colder because you are moving away from source of heat (Earth)
-temperature cools with rising altitude at Environmental Lapse Rate, 3.5�F/1000 ft avg.
As you go up, the temperature gets colder because you are moving away
temperature inversions
atmospheric condition in which warm air traps cooler air near the earth's surface
A deviation from the normal temperature distribution in the atmosphere, resulting in a layer of cold air temporarily trapped near the ground by a warmer, upper layer
What can control temperature?
Altitude, latitude, land-water contrasts, ocean currents
Characteristics of gases
have much lower densities than liquids and solids
temperature relationships relative to water
water is very important in regulating temperature. coastal cities have more regulated temperatures because of the water
Aneroid
an instrument that measures changes in air pressure without using a liquid
a barometer that measures pressure without using fluids
An instrument that measures changes in air pressure without using a liquid. Changes in the shape of an airtight metal box ca
mercurial barometers
-measure air pressur
altimeters
barometers can also be used as __________
The basic weather instrument equipment for terminals includes wind indicators and ________.
29.92 SET
Normal sea-level air pressure
29.92 inches of mercury, 1013 mb Isobars
pressure gradient
Pressure difference between two points
Differences in air pressure, The pressure gradient forces acts at right angles to the isobars 90 degrees. Weak pressure gradient- bars spaced out, Strong pressure gradient- bars close together.
Wind is?
horizontal air movement. Wind velocity controlled by pressure gradient. Wind direction controlled by pressure gradient, Coriolis effect, and friction Geostrophic winds
Anticyclone
high pressure: Subsidence, divergence, fair weather, clockwise in Northern Hemisphere
Cyclone
low pressure: Air rises, convergence, stormy weather, counterclockwise in Northern Hemisphere Global circulation pattern
Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITC, Doldrums)
-where the Hadley cells from the north and south come together
An area of low pressure near or on the equator where the northeast trades and the southeast trades converge
Trade Winds
Prevailing winds that blow northeast from 30 degrees north latitude to the equator and that blow southeast from 30 degrees south latitude to the equator
prevailing winds that blow from east to west from 30 degrees latitude to the equator in both hemispher
Subtropical High
(Horse Latitudes)
A belt of high pressure located at approximately 30 N and 30 S, which pushes heavy subsiding air outward toward both north and south.
A region of several semipermanent anticyclonic centers characterized by the subsidence and divergence l
Westerlies
Dominant winds of the mid-latitudes. These winds move from the subtropical highs to the subpolar lows from west to east.
Prevailing winds that blow from west to east between 30 degrees and 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres
Subpolar Low
(Polar Front)
The pressure zone located at about the latitude of the Arctic and Antarctic circles.
a low pressure area formed sixty degrees N when the prevailing westerlies rise above the polar easterlies
belt of low air pressure at about 60 degrees north
Polar Easterlies
Prevailing winds that blow from east to west between 60 degrees-90 degrees latitude in both hemisphere.
Blow wind away from the north and south poles, blow to the east
Polar High
Zone of high atmospheric pressure at high latitudes
polar air is subsidizing and spreading equatorward
High pressure at 90 degrees
Cold, dense sinking air from the poles... sinks towards the polar front creating the third cell of the model.
Seasonal shift of pressure pattern
Monsoon
Hadley Cells
A large-scale atmospheric convection cell in which air rises at the equator and sinks at medium latitudes, about 30 degrees north or south"
convection current in the atmosphere that cycles between the equator and 30� N and 30� S.
Circulation cells exist
Rossby Waves
Undulations that develop in the polar front jet stream when significant temperature differences exist between tropical and polar air masses.
upper troposphere waves that play a large part in the formation of cyclones and anticyclones
Undulations in the po
Monsoons
seasonal wind patterns that cause wet and dry seasons
A wind system that influences large climatic regions and reverses direction seasonally
Alternating wind currents that blew eastward across the Indian Ocean in the summer and westward during the winter
sea breezes
A sea breeze is created during the day because solar radiation warms the land more than the water.
a convection current blows wind from the cooler sea toward warmer land during the day
mountain-valley winds
* Mountain-valley winds - cased by variations in solar heating of the surface. The mountain breeze blows down the mountain at night. The valley breeze blows up the mountain during the da
relative humidity
(degree of saturation)
The amount of water vapor in the air at any given time is usually less than that required to saturate the air. Expressed as a percentage.
- ratio of the air's actual water vapor content compared with the amount of water vapor requir
absolute humidity
(mass/volume)
The mass of water vapor contained in a certain volume of air
The amount of moisture in the air at a given time.
specific humidity
(mass/mass)
The amount of water vapor in the air at a given time and place; expressed as the number of grams of water vapor per kilogram of air.
actual amount of moisture in the air
comparing the weight (mass) of the water vapor per volume of air (parcel)
humidity
The amount of water vapor in the air
Psychrometer
An instrument used to measure relative humidity
An instrument used to measure relative humidity, consisting of a wet-bulb thermometer and a dry-bulb thermometer.
hygrometer
measuring instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere
An instrument designed to measure the air's water vapor content. The sensing part of the instrument can be hair (hair hygrometer), a plate coated with carbon (electrical hygrometer
things used to measure relative humidity
Psychrometer, hygrometer
Air stability, adiabatic heating and cooling, relative humidity changes accompanying heating or cooling
Air stability
due to higher density, air which is cooler than the air around it tends to sink - if air is warmer it will rise and as it rises it cools
describes tendency of air to remain in the same position
When air rises, it cools and can eventually produce clouds. S
Mechanisms of atmospheric lifting
Sea salts, act as nuclei for formation of raindrops, collection pt for air pollutants. Rain brings down many particulate pollutants from atmosphere to ocean
precipitation
Any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface.
fog
A clouds on the ground that reduces visibility. A low-lying stratus cloud.
A cloud resting on the ground composed of water droplets, ice crystals, or a combination of both.
dew
The temperature at which condensation begins
the temperature at which the water vapor in the air becomes saturated and condensation begins
frost
If the temperature of the ground is below freezing the water vapor freezes forming _________