Earth's main energy inputs are
ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared radiation.
Earth's main energy outputs are
thermal infrared radiation
The passage of shortwave and longwave energy through the atmosphere and water is an example of
Transmission
Incoming radiation that reaches Earth's surface after scattering is
diffuse radiation.
The principle that explains the differential scattering of shorter wavelength radiation and accounts for the Earth's blue sky is
Rayleigh scattering.
When light passes from one medium to another, resulting in a change in speed and direction of insolation,
refraction occurs
An image that appears near the horizon when layers of air are at different temperatures and densities is a(n) ________ and an example of ________.
mirage; refraction
Because of the process known as ________ the Sun appears above the horizon ________ it has actually risen.
refraction; before
The reflective quality of a surface is known as its
albedo.
Earth's average overall albedo is
31 percent
Which of the following is true of the albedo of water?
it changes, depending upon the Sun angle
Which of the following has the lowest albedo?
moon
Which of the following has the highest albedo?
fresh snow
The assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter is
absorption.
If a surface absorbs insolation,
its temperature increases
Which two gases are good absorbers of longwave radiation emitted from Earth?
water vapor and carbon dioxide
Heat always flow from an area of ________ temperature to an area of ________ temperature.
higher; lower
Heat that can be sensed due to the kinetic energy of molecular motion is
sensible heat.
Energy gained or lost when a substance changes from one state to another is
latent heat.
Conduction refers to
the molecule-to-molecule transfer of heat energy.
A horizontal air current that is generated by temperature-induced density differences is an example of heat transfer by
advection
What is the uninterrupted passage of insolation through the atmosphere or water?
transmission
Which of the following statements regarding diffuse radiation is correct?
The sky is blue as a result of Rayleigh scattering.
What is the process that transfers heat by molecular contact?
conduction
Differential transmissivity of shortwave insolation and longwave terrestrial radiation by various atmospheric gases is better known as
the greenhouse effect.
The analogy of a greenhouse
is a useful, but inaccurate model since atmospheric gases do not trap, but absorb heat.
Longwave radiation absorbed by certain atmospheric constituents and re-radiated back to Earth's surface is known as
counterradiation
If the amount of low, thick stratus cloud cover increases, the Earth's climates would likely ________ due to increased ________.
cool; reflectivity
An increase in the amount of high altitude, ice crystal (cirrus) clouds would
warm the planet in a process called cloud-greenhouse forcing.
Which of the following is a nonradiative transfer of longwave radiation to the atmosphere?
latent heat transfer
Which of the following is true of differences in latitudinal energy?
There is an energy balance between energy gains and losses around 36� latitude.
Which of the following is not a reason for the energy deficit in the polar regions?
little seasonal variability
Which of the following is true relative to the Earth-atmosphere radiation system?
Averaged over a year, Earth's surface has an energy surplus.
Which of the following statements regarding albedo is correct?
Earth's average albedo is 31%.
Net radiation (NET R) refers to
the balance of all radiation incoming and outgoing at Earth's surface
NET R values, as illustrated for a typically summer day at a midlatitude location, are positive
during daylight hours, peaking just after noon with the peak of insolation
Sensible heat transfer (H) refers to energy transfer between the air and the surface by
convection and conduction
On land, the highest annual values for latent heat of evaporation (LE) occur
in the tropics.
Which statement describes the Earth-atmosphere energy budget?
shows net surpluses at the equator and net deficits at the poles
Temperature is
measure of the average kinetic energy of individual molecules in matter.
-273�C (-459.67�F) is
0 absolute temperature.
The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales only coincide at
-40�.
The size of one Kelvin unit is
the same size as one Celsius degree.
Official temperatures are measured using thermometers placed in shelters that are
placed a few feet above the ground in louvered white boxes.
Land surface temperature (LST) is
a measure of the heating of the land surface and is distinct from air temperature.
The single most important control on temperature is
insolation.
Elevation typically refers to ________ whereas altitude refers to ________.
the height of a point on Earth's surface; the height above Earth's surface
Which of the following is true regarding locations at high elevations?
Higher elevations experience lower average temperatures during both day and night.
Imagine two hypothetical cities, both located at 12� N latitude. However, one is located near sea level, while the other at an elevation of 4,000 m (13,123 ft) above sea level. Which of the following is likely true?
The city at the higher elevation has average monthly and yearly temperatures lower than the city near sea level.
During the day, clouds ________ insolation, lowering daily maximum temperatures; at night, clouds ________ longwave energy, thereby raising minimum nighttime temperatures.
reflect; absorb and counterradiate
How does evaporation effect land-water heating differences?
Evaporation tends to lower temperatures more over water bodies than over land.
The temperature control that includes the heat capacity of a substance is
specific heat.
Part complete
The specific heat of land is ________ than water and, therefore, land heats more ________ than water.
lower; quickly
During summer, cities located near the coast are ________ than those in the interior at the same latitude, while in the winter they are ________.
cooler; warmer
Part complete
________ refers to the greater range between maximum and minimum temperatures that occurs in inland areas distant from large bodies of water.
Continentality
Which of the following is true?
Northern Hemisphere temperatures are more strongly dominated by continentality than are Southern Hemisphere temperatures.
San Francisco, CA and Wichita, KS are located at approximately the same latitude. Which of the following is true?
Annual temperature ranges in Wichita are greater than those in San Francisco
Upper tropospheric winds that flow parallel to isobars are called
geostrophic winds.
Which of the following is not a predicted outcome for each Celsius degree increase in global temperature?
5 to 15% increase in crop yields (as currently grown)
The highest surface air pressure ever recorded occurred when the air was
very cold.
Which of the following is not true of the wind?
Air blows from regions of hotter air to regions of colder air.
Which of the following describes the pressure gradient force?
It drives air from areas of higher to lower barometric pressure.
In the Northern Hemispheres, winds spiraling counterclockwise into a low pressure area are
cyclonic
Which of the following is true of high pressure areas?
Air descends and diverges.
Which statement describes global temperature patterns?
In July, the thermal equator is at higher latitudes over continents in the Northern Hemisphere than over oceans.
Which is true of air flowing into low pressure center?
Air converges and ascends.
Which of the following is not true about heat stress?
Heat stress poses little threat to human health.
Which of the following is true regarding the effects of the Coriolis force?
The strength of the apparent deflection varies with speed of Earth's rotation.
Which of the following is not responsible for the urban heating effect?
Increased albedo of urban environments relative to that of natural landscapes.
Part complete
________ is a prolonged period of abnormally high temperatures, usually in association with humid weather
A heat wave
Which statement is accurate about human response to weather extremes?
Wind chill takes into account that wind removes moisture and warm air from around our skin and makes the temperature feel cooler.
A isoline of equal pressure plotted on a weather map is known as an
isobar.
The frictional force effect on winds
is negligible at altitudes above 500 m (~1,600 ft).
increases with altitude.
is lessened in areas with rougher surfaces.
is constant, regardless of time of day or year.
The wind-chill temperature index
is a factor of actual air temperature and wind speed.
On a weather map of air pressure, what can you infer from a closer spacing of isobars?
a steep pressure gradient creating a faster flow of air
Which of the following is not a strategy used planners and architects to mitigate against the effects of the urban heat island?
using dark covered asphalt
On a cold, windy day, the air feels ________ because the wind ________.
colder; increases evaporative heat loss from our skin.
Which of the following results from the friction force?
reduces the effect of the Coriolis force up to 500 m (1650 ft)
As reported by the National Weather Service, the heat index
relates temperature and relative humidity.
Which is true for global annual temperature ranges?
The greatest ranges occur in east central Siberia in Russia.
Normal sea level pressure has a value of
1013.2 millibars.
An instrument used to measure air pressure is
an aneroid barometer.
Following the urban heat island profile from rural areas to a typical downtown urban area, which of the following is true?
On average, urban areas are 1 to 3�C higher than nearby rural areas.
The thermal equator
connects all points of highest mean temperature.
Lines on a temperature map connecting points of equal temperature is called an
isotherm
If there is a steeper pressure gradient, wind will be ________than areas with a gradual pressure gradient
stronger
The deflection produced by the Coriolis force is caused by
Earth's rotation on its axis
anticyclone/cyclone
geostrophic Winds
Winds are named based on
the direction from which they originate
In the absence of friction, the combined effect of the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force produces
geostrophic winds at altitude above the ground.
Objects and wind moving over distance and time on Earth's surface are
apparently deflected from a straight path to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.
Which of the following would cause the Coriolis force to increase?
increase wind speed
The horizontal motion of air relative to Earth's surface is
wind
Global average temperatures for January. (a) Temperatures are in Celsius (convertible to Fahrenheit by means of the scale) as taken from separate air temperature databases for ocean and land.
In January, the thermal equator
trends southward into the interior of South America and Africa.
Air flow in a Northern Hemisphere high pressure zone is
downward, outward and clockwise
Which of the following matches is incorrect relative to air circulation?
anticyclone - clockwise circulation in the Southern Hemisphere
An aneroid barometer
uses a chamber that expands or contracts with changes in air pressure
hich of the following regions would have the greatest range of temperatures?
Siberia, Russia
What initiates airflow?
the pressure gradient force
The quantifying of the enhanced rate at which body heat is lost to air is known as the
wind Chill factor
A(n) ________ is an instrument used to measure wind direction.
wind vane
The overall trend to warming temperatures
indicates the Arctic has experienced larger temperature increases than lower latitudes.
How would a moving object in Earth's atmosphere be deflected as a result of Earth's rotation?
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
Which of the following is not a determinant of wind speed and direction?
electromagnetic force
The Coriolis force
causes the apparent deflection of winds from a straight path.
What is the average global sea-level air pressure?
1013.2 millibars
Where are Hadley cells found?
in the atmosphere near the equator
How does wind generally move?
From areas of higher atmospheric pressure toward areas of lower atmospheric pressure
What causes the pressure gradient force?
The difference in atmospheric pressure from one location to another
What causes the Coriolis force?
The earth's rotation
How does the Coriolis force deflect objects in the atmosphere, relative to their original paths?
To the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
What causes friction forces?
Interaction between wind and surrounding atmosphere
How would wind move if Coriolis and friction forces did not exist?
Wind would move directly from areas of high atmospheric pressure to areas of low atmospheric pressure.
How would wind move if pressure gradient and friction forces did not exist?
Wind would not move.
How would wind move if pressure gradient and Coriolis forces did not exist?
Wind would not move.
Which of the following primary pressure areas are produced by thermal factors, rather than dynamic factors?
equatorial low and polar high
During the winter, the Bermuda high migrates to the ________ and becomes the ________.
east; Azores high
The Aleutian low and Icelandic low are
dominant in the winter and weaken or disappear in the summer
The intertropical convergence zone is characterized by
convergence and uplift of warm surface air.
Which of the following is not true of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)?
The ITCZ is stationary throughout the year
The winds converging at the equatorial low are known as
trade winds
Calm winds associated weak pressure gradient and the vertical ascent of air in the ITCZ are known as
the doldrums.
The tropical atmospheric circulation associated with rising winds along the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and descending air in the subtropics are called
Hadley cells.
Part complete
On Earth between 30� north latitude and the equator, winds flow from the ________ as they flow out of the ________ pressure zone toward the ITCZ.
NE; subtropical high
Between 20� to 35� north and 20� to 35� south are
the world's arid and semi-arid desert regions.
Which of the following is associated with the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts?
subtropical high pressure
The western side of subtropical high pressure cells
produces surface winds that pass over warm ocean currents.
The dominant surface winds from the subtropics to high latitudes are the
westerlies.
Part complete
On Earth between 30� and 60� north, winds flow from the ________ as they flow out of the ________ pressure zone toward the ________ pressure zone.
west-southwest; subtropical high; subpolar low
The area of conflict between colder and warmer air masses in the subpolar region
is termed the polar front.
The polar high pressure system is best characterized as
cold and dry with weak anticyclonic high pressure.
polar high pressure cells
produce the weak, variable polar easterlies
Which is true of upper atmospheric circulation?
Middle and upper tropospheric circulation is an important component of the atmosphere's general circulation.
________ are waving undulations within the upper-air westerly wind flow.
Rossby waves
The most prominent movement in the upper-level westerly geostrophic wind flows are the
jet streams.
Which of the following is false regarding the jet streams?
They have no known effect on surface weather systems
Sea-breezes
involve onshore (toward the land) air flows that develop in the afternoon
Mountain and valley breezes
involve warm air rising upslope during the day, creating an area of low pressure; at night it is reversed with a low pressure area forming on the valley floor.
During the day along the coast, the wind tends to blow toward the ________ because ________.
land; land heats more rapidly than water
Santa Ana winds
create wildfire conditions by bringing heat and dryness as they flow southwest.
Seasonally shifting wind systems associated with the annual cycle of returning precipitation are known as
monsoons
Monsoonal winds are
regional wind systems that seasonally vary
Which of the following is not associated with the Asian monsoon pattern?
summer low pressure zones over the ocean and high pressure zone over land
A monsoon climate is characterized by ________ summers and ________ winters.
wet; dry
Which of the following is true of India's weather patterns?
The shifting of the intertropical convergence zone and upper air circulation brings heavy precipitation in summer from June to September.
What conditions are found under the intertropical convergence zone?
Warm surface air is converging and rising
What are the persistent surface winds that flow in the lower latitudes?
trade winds
Surface ocean currents ___.
are driven by winds
are influenced by Coriolis effect
form large rotating gyres in the major ocean basins
Equatorial currents that are part of the subtropical gyres flow ___. Equatorial counter currents between the gyres flow ___ .
East to west; west to east
Warm ocean currents ___.
are warmer than the surrounding water
Cool ocean currents ___.
generally flow from high latitudes towards the equator
The subtropical gyres ___.
play a large role in climate
Deep ocean currents ___.
result from changes in water density (due to temperature and salt content)
Which of the following is not important in shaping ocean currents?
land-sea breezes
In the Northern Hemisphere, ocean currents move ________ about high-pressure cells; in the Southern Hemisphere ocean currents move ________ about high-pressure cells.
clockwise; counterclockwise
parallel; perpendicular
The western intensification causes water to pile up ________, forcing water to flow ________ in strong currents.
against eastern shore of continents; northward and southward
Where surface water is swept away from a coast, ________ occurs, bringing cold, nutrient rich waters to the surface.
upwelling
Which of the following is true of thermohaline circulation?
Thermohaline currents are deep currents caused by differences in temperature and salinity.
Which of the following is true of thermohaline circulation?
Thermohaline currents are deep currents caused by differences in temperature and salinity
What are the variations in temperature and salinity that affect deep ocean currents?
thermohaline circulation
A large system of rotating ocean currents, usually driven by the major wind belts, is called a(n) __________.
gyre
The current in the northwestern part of the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre that transports warm water toward the North Atlantic is called the __________.
Gulf Stream
The loss of heat from the ocean surface, resulting in a lowered temperature, causes ocean water to become __________.
denser
A deep and powerful southward subsurface current that flows under the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic is the __________.
North Atlantic Deep Water
Thermohaline circulation in the ocean is driven primarily by differences in __________ and __________ among water masses.
temperature; salinity
Part complete
One of the world's most powerful currents, located off the east coast of the United States, is the __________.
Gulf Stream
Part complete
The Gulf Stream transports warm water into the __________.
North Atlantic
Fluctuations in the flow of the Gulf Stream current result in curving loops of water known as __________.
meanders
Ocean frontal systems that spin off from currents such as the Gulf Stream, akin to atmospheric storms, are known as __________.
eddies
When a meander from the Gulf Stream pinches off into the warm water south of the current, the eddy is called a __________.
cold-core eddy or ring
The El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation
is a periodic shift of high and low pressure zones over the western and eastern Pacific, respectively, usually occurring every 2 to 12 years.
The El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation is associated with the following except
cooler than normal ocean along the west coast of South America.
Which of the following is associated with a La Ni�a-ENSO Phase?
wetter conditions throughout Indonesia, the South Pacific, and northern Brazil
Which natural oscillation in global circulation is associated with shifts in patterns of sea surface temperatures, air pressure, and winds between the northern and tropical western Pacific?
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
Which statement accurately describes surface ocean currents?
Surface ocean currents are driven by frictional drag from winds.
Which natural climate oscillation produces warm and cold phases near the west coast of South America?
enso
cool spring mornings, veils of fog can often be seen rising above warm lakes and ponds. This type fog is an example of ________ fog.
evaporation
Which of the following cloud type is associated with rain?
cumulonimbus
The movement of water throughout the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere is known as the
hydrologic cycle
A mass of air always becomes saturated when it reaches the
dew-point temperature
A stratus cloud that produces precipitation is known as
nimbostratus
On a typical day, the point of lowest relative humidity is associated with
the time of the highest temperature.
The heat energy involved in the change of state, or phase, in water is
latent heat
As temperature increases, the saturation specific humidity
increases
Relative humidity is
the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the water vapor capacity of the air
The difference between the dry adiabatic rate and the moist adiabatic rate is on account of
the latent heat of condensation.
Which of the following is a middle-level cloud type?
altostratus
________ occurs when the relative humidity is 100%.
Saturation
________ is amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water at 15�C by 1 degree Celsius.
calorie
A pocket of air that has specific temperature and humidity characteristics is termed a(n
parcel
On a typical day, the point of highest relative humidity is associated with
lowest temperature
Ice pellets larger than 0.5 cm (0.20 in) that form within a cumulonimbus cloud are known as
hail
The precipitation in form of liquid water droplets that forms by condensation or by melting ice crystals as they pass through a warm layer of the atmosphere is
rain
A cloud is best described as a(n)
visible aggregation of tiny moisture droplets and ice crystals suspended in the air
Which of the following is true regarding the evaporation of water?
It requires the addition of 540 cal for each gram under normal sea level pressure
On cool spring mornings, veils of fog can often be seen rising above warm lakes and ponds. This type fog is an example of ________ fog.
evaporation
Which of the following cloud type is associated with rain?
cumulonimbus
What must break in order for water to change from solid to liquid to gas?
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules
The movement of water throughout the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere is known as the
hydrologic cycle
A mass of air always becomes saturated when it reaches the
dew-point temperature
A stratus cloud that produces precipitation is known as
nimbostratus
On a typical day, the point of lowest relative humidity is associated with
the time of the highest temperature
The heat energy involved in the change of state, or phase, in water is
latent heat.
As temperature increases, the saturation specific humidity
increases.
Relative humidity is
the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the water vapor capacity of the air.
The difference between the dry adiabatic rate and the moist adiabatic rate is on account of
the latent heat of condensation.
Which of the following is a middle-level cloud type?
altostratus
________ occurs when the relative humidity is 100%.
Saturation
________ is amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water at 15�C by 1 degree Celsius.
A calorie
A pocket of air that has specific temperature and humidity characteristics is termed a(n
parcel
On a typical day, the point of highest relative humidity is associated with
the time of the lowest temperature
Ice pellets larger than 0.5 cm (0.20 in) that form within a cumulonimbus cloud are known as
hail
The precipitation in form of liquid water droplets that forms by condensation or by melting ice crystals as they pass through a warm layer of the atmosphere is
rain
A cloud is best described as a(n)
visible aggregation of tiny moisture droplets and ice crystals suspended in the air.
Which of the following is true regarding the evaporation of water
It requires the addition of 540 cal for each gram under normal sea level pressure.
Part complete
Which cloud type can indicate an oncoming storm, especially if they thicken and lower in elevation?
cirrus
Which of the following relationships is correct?
Stable: ELR = 5 �C/km
The latent heat of melting and the latent heat of freezing involve the absorption or release of ________ calories per gram of water changing state.
80
The prefix nimbo- and the suffix -nimbus mean
that the clouds are producing precipitation.
Vertically developed puffy and globular clouds are classed as
cumuliform.
Part complete
Below a temperature of 4�C (39�F), water ________ and its density ________.
expands; decreases
The attraction of molecules for molecules of the another kind is called
molecular hold.
Which of these types of fog would you find after a calm, clear night, especially over land?
radiation fog
The portion of air pressure exerted by water vapor is the
vapor pressure.
When water condenses, it ________ heat energy and ________ the surrounding air.
releases; heats
An air parcel is considered unstable when it
continues to rise until it reaches an altitude at which the surrounding air has a similar temperature.
Assuming a Northern Hemisphere station, in which of the following months would the relative humidity likely be the highest?
January
Part complete
Which of these cloud types is associated with lightning and thunder?
cumulonimbus
When the environmental lapse rate is between the dry and moist adiabatic lapse rates, conditions are described as
conditionally unstable.
High altitude wispy clouds made of ice crystals are classed as
cirroform.
A thunderstorm is associated with ________ clouds.
cumulonimbus
Assume a warm air parcel, at sea level, has a temperature of 21�C (70�F) and begins to rise upward. Assume it becomes saturated at 1000 m (3300 ft) altitude, and continues to rise to 2000 m (6600 ft.) altitude. What would the approximate temperature of th
5�C (46.4�F)
Part complete
The amount of water vapor that can be present in the air is primarily a function of the
temperature
Part complete
The condensation process requires
condensation nuclei and saturated air
Part complete
In winter, freezing water can break pipes and even crack engine blocks. Why does this happen?
Water expands in volume as it freezes.
The two opposing forces determining the vertical position of a parcel of air are
buoyant force and gravitational force.
Which of the following statements regarding cloud terminology is correct?
Wispy, ice crystal clouds are cirroform
Out of all the water present in the Earth systems, ________ is stored in the atmosphere.
less than 0.03%
Which of the following are correctly matched?
puffy or globular clouds - cumuliform
Raindrops that fall through a thick, subfreezing layer of air near the ground form ice pellets known as
sleet
Which of the following statements about adiabatic processes is correct?
Heat is neither lost nor gained.
The point where saturation begins in a rising air parcel is
the lifting condensation level.
What is the temperature at which condensation begins?
the dew point
Part complete
If the amount of water vapor in the air remained constant, but the air temperature increased throughout the day, the relative humidity would
decrease
Flat and layered clouds with horizontal development are classed as
stratiform
The upward movement of water against gravity is called
capillary action
Part complete
When water evaporates, it ________ heat energy and ________ the surrounding air
absorbs; cools
At saturation, the further addition of water vapor or a decrease in temperature results in
condensation.
Cooling of a surface overnight that chills the air layer directly above that surface may form
a radiation fog.
What are the criteria used to classify clouds?
altitude and shape
Which statement describes the moist adiabatic rate?
The moist adiabatic rate is lower than the dry rate
Which of the following is an example of deposition?
water vapor freezing to ice
Which of the following related to phase changes of water is incorrectly matched?
evaporation - energy released
Part complete
Air that is not saturated will cool or heat at a rate of ________ as it rises or descends, respectively.
10 C� per 1000 m (5.5 F� per 1000 ft.)
Water vapor in the atmosphere is called
humidity
Which of the following phase changes of water is incorrectly matched?
vaporization - solid to gas
The point at which evaporation and condensation are in balance is
saturation equilibrium.
Part complete
What causes the development of most clouds and precipitation in the atmosphere?
rising air
Why would a parcel of air rise relative to other air in the atmosphere?
A parcel of air will rise if it has a lower density than the surrounding air.
Which factor is most important for determining the density of a parcel of air?
temperature
What will happen if a parcel of air is colder than surrounding air?
A colder parcel of air will rise in the atmosphere if forced.
A colder parcel of air will sink in the atmosphere on its own
What will happen to a parcel of air as it rises?
A rising parcel of air will expand and cool.
In general, when will clouds begin to form out of a parcel of air?
when a rising parcel of air has reached a temperature below its dew point
Which process can add heat to a rising body of air?
condensation
The general term that refers to the tendency of a parcel of air to either remain in place or change its initial position is
stability
What type of cloud that has a thin wispy appearance, consists of ice crystals, and often precedes a warm front?
cirrus
Which of the following statements describes a property of water?
It expands when it freezes
Which of the following is a high altitude cloud?
cirrus
Part complete
A fog that develops when warm, moist air blows over a cold current (such as the California Current) is an example of ________ fog.
advection
Sea smoke refers to
evaporation fog at sea.
Clouds that have vertical development and produce thunderstorms are called
cumulonimbus.
The hydrogen bonding in water creates ________, a cohesive force that enables one to slightly overfill a glass with water or allows denser objects, such as a lengthwise steel needle, to float on water.
surface tension
The dry adiabatic rate (DAR) is
10 C� per 1000 m (5.5 F� per 1000 ft.).
The moist adiabatic rate is
6 C/1000m
Transmission
The passage of shortwave and longwave energy through space, the atmosphere, or water.
Scattering
Deflection and redirection of insolation by atmospheric gases, dust, ice, and water vapor; the shorter the wavelength, the greater the scattering; thus, skies in the lower atmosphere are blue.
Diffuse radiation
The downward component of scattered incoming insolation from clouds and the atmosphere
Refraction
The bending effect on electromagnetic waves that occurs when insolation enters the atmosphere or another medium; the same process disperses the component colors of the light passing through a crystal or prism.
reflection
The portion of arriving insolation that is returned directly to space without being absorbed and converted into heat and without performing any work.
rayleigh scattering
the scattering of light by particles in a medium, without change in wavelength. It accounts, for example, for the blue color of the sky, since blue light is scattered slightly more efficiently than red.
albedo
The reflective quality of a surface, expressed as the percentage of reflected insolation out of the total incoming insolation; a function of surface color, angle of incidence, and surface texture.
Absorption
Assimilation and conversion of radiation from one form to another in a medium. In the process, the temperature of the absorbing surface is raised, thereby affecting the rate and wavelength of radiation emitted from that surface.
heat
The flow of kinetic energy from one body to another because of a temperature difference between them.
sensible heat
Heat that can be measured with a thermometer; a measure of the concentration of kinetic energy from molecular motion.
latent heat
Heat energy that is "hidden" within the structure of water's physical states�ice, water, or water vapor�and when absorbed or released during a phase change does not produce a change in temperature. Heat energy is absorbed as the latent heat of melting, va
Radiation
Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles.
Conduction
The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching.
Convection
Transfer of heat from one place to another through the physical movement of air; involves a strong vertical motion.
Advection
Horizontal movement of air or water from one place to another
greenhouse effect
The process whereby radiatively active gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and CFCs) absorb and emit the energy at longer wavelengths, which are retained longer, delaying the loss of infrared to space. Thus, the lower troposphere is warmed throug
counterradiation
Within the Earth-atmosphere energy balance, the heat emitted from the atmosphere toward Earth's surface, a total amount that is more energy than is absorbed at the surface from insolation.
cloud-albedo forcing
The cooling effect on Earth's surface temperatures caused by the increase in albedo (reflectivity) of clouds as they reflect insolation.
cloud-greenhouse forcing
The warming effect on Earth's surface temperatures, known as greenhouse warming, caused by the insulating effect of clouds as they delay outgoing longwave (infrared) radiation.
jet contrails
Condensation trails produced by aircraft exhaust, particulates, and water vapor can form high cirrus clouds, sometimes called false cirrus clouds.
Net radiation (NET R)
The net all-wave radiation available at Earth's surface; the final outcome of the radiation balance process between incoming shortwave insolation and outgoing longwave energy.
Latent heat of condensation
The heat energy released to the environment in a phase change from water vapor to liquid; under normal sea-level pressure, 540 calories are released from each gram of water vapor that changes phase to water at boiling, and 585 calories are released from e
Latent heat of sublimation
the heat energy absorbed (680 calories for one gram of ice) in the phase change from ice to water vapor�no liquid phase. The change from water vapor to ice is deposition, which releases a comparable amount of heat.
latent heat of vaporization
The amount of energy required to change a unit mass of a substance from liquid to gas 540 calories must be added to each gram of boiling water to achieve a phase change to water vapor.
latent heat of freezing
heat released when water freezes; identical to latent heat of melting FIND NUMBER
vapor pressure
That portion of total air pressure that results from water vapor molecules, expressed in millibars (mb). At a given dew-point temperature, the maximum capacity of the air is termed its saturation vapor pressure.
Saturation vapor pressure
The vapor pressure, expressed in millibars, of saturated air (air that is carrying the maximum possible amount of water vapor for the current temperature).
dew point temperature
The temperature at which a given mass of air becomes saturated, holding the maximum amount of water vapor possible. Any further cooling or addition of water vapor results in active condensation.
Atmospheric Stability
The tendency of the atmosphere to either encourage or discourage vertical air movement; stable air parcels resist upward displacement, while unstable air parcels rise until they reach an altitude where the surrounding air has a similar temperature and den
Atmospheric Stability
o Stable if ELR<ALR
o Neutral if ELR=ALR
o Unstable if ELR>ALR
o Conditionally Unstable if depends on DALR or SALR
Adiabiatic
Pertaining to the change in temperature of a vertically moving parcel of air�cooling by expansion as it rises or heating by compression as it sinks�occurring without any exchange of heat between the air parcel and the surrounding environment.
Arctic amplification
The tendency for polar latitudes, especially the north polar region, to experience enhanced warming of air and water temperatures relative to the rest of Earth; the phenomenon results in part from the presence of snow and ice and related positive feedback
cloud
An aggregate of tiny water droplets and ice crystals suspended in the air and great enough in volume and concentration to be visible.
cloud droplets
A tiny water droplet, typically 0.02 mm in diameter, that constitutes the initial composition of clouds. Cloud droplets form as rising air cools to the dew-point temperature, becomes saturated, and condenses on cloud-condensation nuclei in the lower atmos
Cloud condensation nuclei
Microscopic particles�such as dust, soot, or ash�necessary as matter on which water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets; giant cloud condensation nuclei, such as sea salt, have a diameter greater than 0.01 mm.
freezing nuclei
condensation nuclei with a crystalline structure like that of ice
Stratus
A stratiform (flat, horizontal) cloud generally below 2000 m (6500 ft).
Cumulus
clouds that look like fluffy, rounded piles of cotton 2000 m (6500 ft) in altitude.
Stratocumulus
A lumpy, grayish, low-level cloud, patchy with sky visible, sometimes present at the end of the day.
anticyclone
A dynamically or thermally caused area of high atmospheric pressure with descending and diverging airflows that rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. (Compare Cyclone.)
cyclone
A dynamically or thermally caused area of low atmospheric pressure with ascending and converging airflows that rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. (Compare Anticyclone; see Midlatitude cyclone, Trop
equitorial low
A thermally caused low-pressure area that almost girdles Earth, with air converging and ascending all along its extent; also called the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
polar high
Weak, anticyclonic, thermally produced pressure systems positioned roughly over each pole; that over the South Pole is the region of the lowest temperatures on Earth. (See Antarctic high.)
subtropical high
One of several dynamic high-pressure areas covering roughly the region from 20� to 35� N and S latitudes; responsible for the hot, dry areas of Earth's arid and semiarid deserts. (See Anticyclone.)
subpolar low
A region of low pressure centered approximately at 60� latitude in the North Atlantic near Iceland and in the North Pacific near the Aleutians as well as in the Southern Hemisphere. Airflow is cyclonic; it weakens in summer and strengthens in winter. (See
Bermuda High
A subtropical high-pressure cell that forms in the western North Atlantic. (See Azores high.)
Azores High
A subtropical high-pressure cell that forms in the Northern Hemisphere in the eastern Atlantic (see Bermuda high); associated with warm, clear water and large quantities of sargassum, a seaweed characteristic of the Sargasso Sea.
antartic high
A consistent high-pressure region centered over Antarctica; source region for an intense polar air mass that is dry and associated with the lowest temperatures on Earth.
Pacific High
A high-pressure cell that dominates the Pacific in July, retreating southward in the Northern Hemisphere in January; also known as the Hawaiian high.
trade winds
Winds from the northeast (in the northern hemisphere) and southeast (in the southern hemisphere) that converge in the equatorial low-pressure trough, forming the intertropical convergence zone.
Westerlies
The predominant surface and aloft wind-flow pattern from the subtropics to high latitudes in both hemispheres.
polar easterlies
Prevailing winds that blow from east to west between 60degrees-90degrees latitude in both hemisphere.
Rossby waves
An undulating horizontal motion in the upper-air westerly circulation at middle and high latitudes.
constant isobaric surface
An elevated surface in the atmosphere on which all points have the same pressure, usually 500 mb. Along this constant-pressure surface, isobars mark the paths of upper-air winds.
jet stream
a high-speed high-altitude airstream blowing from west to east near the top of the troposphere
Land and sea breezes
Winds along coastlines created by different heating characteristics of land and water surfaces�onshore (toward land) sea breezes occur in the afternoon and offshore (toward the sea) land breezes occur at night.
Mountain and valley breezes
Local winds produced when mountain air cools rapidly at night and heats up rapidly during the day. As valley slopes heat up during the day, air moves upward, creating low pressure and an upslope valley breeze. At night, valley slopes lose heat, and the co
Western intensification
The piling up of ocean water along the western margin of each ocean basin, to a height of about 15 cm (6 in.); produced by the trade winds that drive surface currents westward along the equator.
Upwelling
In the oceans, the upward movement of cold, nutrient-rich water from great depth to replace surface water that is swept away by surface divergence or by offshore winds; occurs along the west coasts of North and South America
Gyre
A large-scale pattern of water circulation that moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
Thermohaline circulation
Deep-ocean currents produced by differences in temperature and salinity with depth; Earth's deep currents.
El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Sea-surface temperatures increase, sometimes more than 8 C� (14 F�) above normal in the central and eastern Pacific, replacing the normally cold, nutrient-rich water along Peru's coastline. Pressure patterns and surface ocean temperatures shift from their
Deposition
gas to solid
Sublimation
solid to gas
Altocumulus
Medium level cumulus cloud that is higher than regular cumulus clouds. Lead to precipitation.
Middle-altitude clouds composed of ice and water that occur in several forms: patchy rows, wave patterns, a "mackerel sky," or lens-shaped "lenticular" clouds.
Cumulonimbus
A towering, precipitation-producing cumulus cloud that is vertically developed across altitudes associated with other clouds; frequently associated with lightning and thunder and thus sometimes called a thunderhead.
Advection fog
Active condensation formed when warm, moist air moves laterally over cooler water or land surfaces, causing the lower layers of the air to be chilled to the dew-point temperature.
radiation fog
condensation of water vapor that results from the cooling of air that is in contact with the ground
Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, 10/e Glossary
Evaporation fog
A fog formed when cold air flows over the warm surface of a lake, ocean, or other body of water; forms as the water molecules evaporate from the water surface into the cold, overlying air; also known as steam fog or sea smoke.
Upslope fog
Forms when moist air is forced to higher elevations along a hill or mountain and is thus cooled. (Compare Valley fog.)
Valley fog
The settling of cooler, more dense air in low-lying areas; produces saturated conditions and fog. (Compare Upslope fog.)
Collision-coalescence process
process by which raindrops form in clouds with temperatures above freezing. Updrafts of rising air force the condensation of water vapor onto cloud-condensation nuclei, which then move aloft, mixing and colliding to form raindrops that eventually fall und
Bergeron Process
a theory that relates the formation of precipitation to supercooled clouds, freezing nuclei, and the different saturation levels of ice and liquid water
graupel
soft, white balls of ice: snowflakes covered in rime
Adiabatic
No heat transfer: compression/ expansion. Work is done on/ by gas
moist adiabatic lapse rate
The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of saturated air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere. The moist adiabatic lapse rate is not a constant like the dry adiabatic lapse rate but is dependent on parcel temperature and pressure.