Learning
The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Associative Learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Cognitive Learning
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR).
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Discrimination
(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more less likely.
Operant chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A Positive reinforce is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment)
Primary Reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
Conditioned Reinforce
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforce; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing he desired response every time it occurs.
Reinforcement Schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Fixed-ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Variable-ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows.
Respondent Behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant behavior
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Intrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Extrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
Observational learning
Learning by observing others.
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.