alpha waves
8-13 cycles per second, regular with small amplitude, relaxed state
beta waves
fast (13-30 cps), irregular, small, occur when concentrating or excited
theta waves
4-7 cps, medium amplitude, light sleeping
delta waves
1-3 cps, slow, irregular, high emplitude, deep sleep
Wakefulness
alpha and beta activity
stage 1 sleep
alpha and theta activity
stage 2 sleep
theta activity with sleep spindles and k complexes (singular delta waves)
stage 3 sleep
theta and 10%-50% delta waves
stage 4 sleep
>50% delta waves
REM sleep
lightest stage of sleeping, when you dream
atonia
process of the pons keeping us from acting out our dreams
Reasons for sleep
Non-REM: preservation/protection, restoration. REM: exercise for neurons, memory consolidation
preservation and protection theory
sleep preserves energy and protects individual during a time when being awake is of little value or its dangerous to be moving about
cross species sleep patterns
sleep time depends on feeding habits and ways of achieving safety rather than physical exertion
restoration theory
sleep (especially slow wave sleep) restores body tissues, replenishes vital substances
slow wave sleep
blood supply to the muscles is increased, which aids in recovery after intense workouts or vigorous exercise. Body temperature lowered. Metabolic activity at its lowest for tissue growth and repair. Secretion of growth hormone at its highest. Immune syste
King 1997
exercise leads to faster sleep onset and greater sleep time
Shapiro 1981
Running a marathon increased slow wave sleep, depriving an animal of sleep causes death
REM maintaining synapses
REM is critical for maintaining synapses b/c they degenerate if inactive too long, slow wave sleep weakens connections among all nerves; those execised during REM kept
REM establishing synapses
Electrical stimulation of motor and sensory-cortex (active during REM) results in dream-like hallucinations. Large amounts of time in REM among babies and fetuses
REM for memory consolidation
Studies show that humans show enhanced performance in newly learned perceptual motor tasks but not learning of new facts when given REM
Wagner et al 2004
Sleep is beneficial for generating "insight" -sudden gains in explicit understanding, often based in creative approaches to problems
manifest content
content of the dream that one experiences
latent content
true or hidden meaning of the dream
night terrors
occur during stage 4, usually in children, accompanied by thrashing, screaming, no imagery
wood et al 1992
studied nightmares in college students following earthquake and found that students who lived through it dreamt about it more
sleepwalking
associated with non-REM sleep. NOT acting out dreams, usually just walking or dressing
REM behavior disorder
acting out your dreams--for some reason atonia is not occurring
Sleep paralysis disorder
atonia just as waking or falling asleep
narcolepsy
periods of irresistible sleep
consciousness
knowledge of perception about surroundings and internal state
altered states of consciousness
drug effects, lucid dreaming, hypnosis, meditation
hypnotizability
stable attribute, young children more susceptible, only about 40% of adults are minimally responsive
hypnosis and meditation
both states of consciousness have more alpha and theta, fewer beta waves. less activity in left hemisphere, more in right
Polyphasic sleeping
short bouts of sleeping and wakefulness interspersed throughout the 24 hour day
Porcu et al 1998
studied polyphasic sleeping in air force personnel and concluded that they got less sleep than usual, and had REM rebound
REM rebound
after periods of little sleep when you don't get much REM, you start to enter it more quickly
cognitive processes
mental processes involved in acquiring, organizing, remembering, using, and constructing knowledge; the "processes of knowing
parallel processes
cognitive processes that can happen at the same time
serial processes
processes you have to carry out one at a time
automatic processes
well-rehearsed, practiced operations that require little or no attention; can do many at once (reading)
controlled processes
new or novel operations that require attention; hard to do more than one at a time
automatization
processes (typically through repetition) through which controlled processes become automatic
emotional stroop effect
example with colored words and time it takes to read them. people with anxiety have enhanced ESE--colored words w/ negative connotation take longer to read
reasoning
process of organizing facts in your mind to accomplish some desired end
mental set
tendency to respond to new problem with techniques used previously
functional fixedness
type of mental set in which you represent an object according to its conventional function and fail to consider its novel function (a chair is used for sitting)
deductive reasoning
drawing conclusions logically from premises. applying generalized rules to specific instances to arrive at logical certainties. *premises have to be true, and logic has to be valid
belief-bias effect
if a conclusion is apparently true, you're more likely to judge a conclusion as valid, even if it's not
inductive reasoning
inferring general (likely, but not certain) truths from specific instances
heuristic
a rule of thumb, simplification, or shortcut to make decisions in complex or poorly understood domains
availability
a heuristic in which you make judgments based on information readily available in your memory
representativeness
heuristic: assigns objects to category on basis of a few characteristics regarded as representative of that category (stereotyping)
anchoring
heuristic: an insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting value when judging the probable value of an event or outcome (turkey example)
framing
a description or perspective on a choice that influences that decision by shifting the reference point
prospect theory
if a decision is framed in terms of gains, people are risk avoiders. If decision is framed in terms of losses, people are risk takers
learning
a process based on experience that results in a relatively permanent chance in behavior or behavior potential (e.g., attitudes, values, knowledge)
habituation
most basic form of learning; decline in response to stimulus once stimulus has become familiar
dishabituation
increase in responsiveness when something novel is presented, following multiple presentations of familiar stimulus
classical conditioning
a basic form of learning in which a behavior comes to be elicited by a formerly neutral stimulus. an association is learned between two stimulus
pavlov
russian physiologist studying digestion in dogs, formulated and tested ideas about classical conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a particular reflex or reflex-like behavioral response without any prior learning
unconditioned response
the unlearned reflex or reflex-like behavioral response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus
an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a particular response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the response
conditioned response
a learned response to a stimulus (the CS) that was not originally capable of eliciting the response
acquisition
period during which conditioned response becomes associated with conditioned stimulus; CS and UCS must occur closely enough that their association is clear
extinction
the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response that occurs because the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
reactivation
the rapid relearning of an extinguished conditioned response
stimulus generalization
once a CR has been conditioned to a particular CS, similar stimuli may also elicit the response
stimulus discrimination
the process by which an organism learns to respond differently to stimuli that are distinct from the CS on some dimension
watson and rayner 1920
little albert experiment--conditioned him to fear fuzzy white things by striking a steel bar when he pet a rat
counterconditioning
therapeutic technique involving the substitution of a new conditioned response for a maladaptive one
mary cover jones 1924
counterconditioning experiment with peter, caused him to like rabbits by associating them with his favorite food
operant conditioning
learning in which the consequence of a behavior affects the likelihood that the individual will engage in that behavior again
operant
any behavior that has some effect on the environment
reinforcement contingency
a consistent relationship between a behavior and the chance in the environment it produces
reinforcer
any consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior (reward)
punisher
any consequence that decreases the frequency of a behavior
positive reinforcer
when a behavior is followed by the adding of a stimulus that increases the probability of that behavior being repeated (rewarding behavior with treats)
negative reinforcer
when a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus and therefore increases the probability of that behavior being repeated (take away an aversive stimulus (leash for a dog) to encourage behavior)
positive punishment
when a behavior is followed by the adding of a stimulus that decreases the probability of that behavior being repeated
negative punishment
when a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus and therefore decreases the probability of that behavior being repeated (time out, take a toy away)
appetitive stimulus
stimulus that when added, increases behavior and when removed, decreases behavior
aversive stimulus
something that when added, decreases behavior, and when when removed, increases behavior
reinforcement schedules
partial vs. continuous, partial broken down into interval vs. ratio and fixed vs. variable
fixed interval
rewarded for 1st operant after a set period fo time
variable interval
reward for first operant after a varying amount of time
fixed ratio
rewarded for first operant after a set number of operants
variable ratio
rewarded for 1st operant after a varying number of operants (most effective because organism can't figure out the schedule so they keep doing the behavior to get the reward)
shaping
used to create a very specific behavior by rewarding progressively similar behaviors
necessary conditions for observational learning
attention (have to attend to the stimulus), retention(have to remember the stimulus), motivation (vicariously rewarded/punished to provide motivation), production (must be able to reproduce behavior)
problem for operant conditioning
unintentional elimination of desired behaviors. (kids coloring example) if you are rewarded for something you like, you'll be less likely to enjoy it because you'll tell yourself you're only doing it for the reward
extrinsic rewards
okay for behaviors that aren't intrinsically rewarding: chores, etc.
tangible rewards
should be just large enough to encourage activity - decrease in intrinsic motivation inversely related to extrinsic reward
extension to punishment
power assertive punishment is bad-kids reason that they only behave appropriately to avoid punishment
intelligence
individual differences in the ability to learn, remember, comprehend, and manipulate information
Binet and Simon
study where they calculated mental age and IQ by diving mental age by real age * 100
IQ
normal curve with the mean being 100 and 15 is 1 standard deviation
Stability of IQ
increases with age, and measurements closer in age are more similar than those farther apart in age
Predictive validity of IQ
IQ can predict school performance, occupational success, health and psychological adjustment
Terman
study of gifted children showed that they were more often in leadership roles, physically healthy, went to college, low incidence of maladjustment
Spearman
correlation matrix shows general and specific correlations between verbal, quantitative, and analytical abilities
factor analysis
looks at magnitude of correlations among a large set of variables to find different groupings
fluid intelligence
innate abilities that make people flexible and adaptive thinkers and that underlie the acquisition of knowledge and experience
crystallized intelligence
knowledge acquired through life experience and education; culturally influenced
Correlation between fluid and crystallized
among people who have similar backgrounds, there's a strong correlation. for people with different backgrounds, weak correlation
Flynn effect
intelligence increasing from generation to generation because of nutrition, selective breeding, familiarity with testing, environmental changes
gardner's 8 intelligences
movement, spatial, musical, verbal, logical-mathematical, insight regarding self, insight regarding others, naturalist
Gardner's criteria for an intelligence
must be definable, have experimental evidence, developmental course, have evolutionary history, isolated by brain damage, exceptional talents exist