Pierre Flourens
extirpation, or ablation (damage. Lesion in the brain)
William James & John Dewey
Functionalism
Dewey believed: Psychology should study the function of the individual as a whole as it adapted to fit into its environment
*Dewey did not believe in breaking down neurons into reflex arc theory
Johannes Muller
Law of specific nerve energies
Hermann von Helmholtz
speed of a nerve impulse
Sir Charles Sherrington
inferred the existence of synapses (gaps between neurons)- believed synaptic transfer was an electric transfer, opposed to reality that we now know it is a chemical reaction
Sensory Neurons
(AFFERENT neurons) Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
Motor Neurons
(EFFORENT neurons) Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles ) Efferent neurons, Exit brain
Interneurons
In the brain and spinal cord, linked to reflexive behavior, controlled by neutral circuits call reflex arcs
Parasympathetic Nervous system
Resting & Digestion Acetylcholine Conserves energy; decelerates heartbeat and increases digestion
Sympathetic Nervous System
Stressful situation; "Fight or flight" Adrenaline Maximize energy for quick response; increases
Hindbrain
located where brain meets spinal cord- main functions include, balance, motor coordination, breathing, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking; vital functioning necessary for survival
Midbrain
sensorimotor reflexes, necessary for survival
Forebrain
associated with complex cognitive, and behavioral functioning; complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes- associate with emotion and memory. Not necessary for survival, but associated with thinking and emotional behaviors most characterized
Phylogeny
term for evolutionary development in humans
Medulla Oblongata
(Hindbrain) Regulates breathing, heartbeat, & blood pressure
Cerebellum
(Hindbrain) Helps maintain posture & balance, coordinates body movement
Reticular formation
(Hindbrain) Regulates arousal, attention & alertness (sleeping and waking)
Superior colliculus
(superior ? seeing)
(Midbrain) Receives visual sensory input
Inferior colliculus
(Midbrain) Receives auditory sensory input
Thalamus
(Forebrain) Relay station for incoming sensory information (except smell)
Hypothalamus
(Forebrain) Homeostatic functions, emotional experience, aggression, sexual behavior
Basal ganglia
(Forebrain) Regulates posture and coordination through extra-pyramidal motor system (Parkinson's/ schizophrenia)
Limbic system
(Forebrain) Emotion and memory
Function of the Hypothalamus
1.) Feeding
2.) Fighting
3.) Fleeing
4.) Sexual Functioning
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
The hunger center, rage & fighting Damage Causes: Aphagia (Lack of Hunger)
Ventromendial Hypothalamus (VMH)
The satiety center Damage Causes: Hyperphagia (excessive eating and obesity- VH, Very hungry)
Anterior Hypothalamus
Sexual behavior Damage Causes: Asexual behavior
Homeostasis
- Walter Cannon
- Metabolism, temperature, water balance (osmoregulation)
The "Fight or Flight" responses
- Emotion experience during high arousal states
- Sham rage (pseudo-rage, triggered by mildest stimuli)
Anterior Hypothalamus
Damage leads to- Aggressive sexual behavior- inhibition of sexual behavior
Septum (Septal Area)
(Limbic System) Primary pleasure center (James Olds & Peter Milner)
Inhibits aggression- Septal Rage
Amygdala
(Limbic System) Defensive and aggressive behaviors (Heinrick Kluver & Paul Bucy)
Hippocampus
(Limbic System) Learning and memory processes (Brenda Milner's patient H.M.)
Cerebral Cortex
Outer surface of the brain
Prefrontal lobes
cognitive and behavioral processes (an association area; combines input from diverse brain regions)- damage impairs overall supervisory functions, individual with prefrontal lesions may be more impulsive or depressed
Motor cortex
initiates voluntary motor movement, sends neural impulses down spinal cord to muscles
Parietal
Somatosensory information processing, spatial processing and manipulation; Brocas area is usually found in LEFT, Parietal lobe; somatosensory cortex is in parietal lobe too
Occipital
visual (striate cortex)- visual perception, learning and motor control, found at very rear of the brain
Temporal
auditory cortex: auditory perception; memory processing, emotion control, and language, Wiernicke's Area is found in temporal lobe, concerned with reception and communication abilities. Hippocampus is located in side temporal lobe, electrical stimulation
Dominant hemisphere
usually left hemisphere
� Analytic: logic and math
� Language comprehension (Wernicke's area) and language production (Broca's area)
Non-dominant Hemisphere
� Emotional tone of spoken language
� Intuition, creativity, music & spatial processing
Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
� Split Brain Studies
Glial cells
support and nourish neurons; insulate axons in a protective myelin sheath
Neurons
information carriers
Cell body (Soma)
contains the nucleus, making it the cells energy center
Dendrites
branch out from cell body to receive information from other cell bodies, external stimulation can cause a neuron to fire (generate electrical impulse)
Electrical Process
within a Neuron
Chemical Process
between neurons
Resting potential
- Sodium- potassium pump: maintains the neuron's resting potential
- Polarized: slight negative charge ( -70 millivolts
Depolarization
(firing of the neuron)
- Membrane's potential increases the threshold potential (-50 millivolts)
Action potential spike
- Rapid electrical pulse, charge becomes positive (depolarization)
- Cell membrane is repolarized
Hyperpolarization
- Cell membrane becomes resistant to positively charge sodium ions
- Internal voltage returns to the original resting potential
Potassium
Outside cell during rest? inside during action potentials
Sodium
Inside cell during rest? outside during action potentials
Refractory period
(period between action potential, where a potential is not able to take place) Governed by the "All-or-None Law "of Neutral Activity
Acetylcholine
(Found in central and peripheral nervous systems) Transmits nerve impulse to the muscles, linked to Alzheimer's disease- linked to loss of Acetylcholine and loss of links to hippocampus
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine (Catecholamines) AKA monoamines
Emotions
Norepinephrine
Controls alertness and wakefulness, implicated in depression and mania
Serotonin
Monoamine and biogenetic-amine transmitter linked to depression, regulates mood, eating, sleeping, and arousal
Dopamine
(Usually found in basal ganglia) Movement and posture, linked to schizophrenia
GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, stabilizes neural activity in the brain
Sedative- hypnotic drugs (depressants)
Slows down the functioning of the CNS, synergistic, or additive in effect Benzodiazepines (valium) & barbiturates, alcohol
Behavioral- stimulants
Increases motor activity, stimulate receptors for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin Amphetamines
Antidepressants
Antipsychotic
Blocks receptors sites for dopamine, treat delusions, hallucinations and agitation Thorazine, chlorpromazine, phenothiazine, haloperidol (Haldol), Lithium carbonate (bipolar disorder)
Narcotics
Bind to "opiate" receptors in the brain, respond to endorphins Opium, heroin, and morphine
Hypothalamus (endocrine)
Brain region that control release of pituitary hormones
Pituitary (endocrine)
Master gland secretes hormones that rigger hormone secretion in other endocrine glands
Thyroid (endocrine)
Affects metabolism, growth
Adrenal medulla (endocrine)
Produces adrenaline, increases heart rate ("Fight or flight")
Ovaries (endocrine)
strogen stimulates female sex characteristics; progesterone prepares uterus for implantation of embryo
Testes (endocrine)
Testosterone produces male sex characteristics, role in sexual arousal, production of sperm
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
development of the ovarian follicle
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Stimulates ovulation
egional cerebral blood flow (cCBF)
Detects patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
Agnosia
difficulty with perceptual recognition impairment in visual recognition
Apraxia
Impairment in organization of motor function
Beta waves
13- 30 Hz brain wave frequency brain wave while alert or concentrating (Characterize waves when we're awake)
Alpha waves
8- 12 Hz brain wave frequency during relaxed wakefulness (Occur when we're awake but relaxing with eyes closed)
Theta waves
5-8 Hz brain wave associated with relaxed wakefulness and REM sleep (occur during sleep stage 1)
Delta waves
1-3 Ha brain wave associated with deep dreamless sleep
Sleep Stage 1
Theta waves, K complexes (brief high amplitude waves) and sleep spindles (short bursts of alpha waves)
Sleep Stage 2
Theta waves
Sleep Stage 3
Progressively slower delta waves, steeper sleep spindles
Sleep Stage 4
The deepest sleep state of the full sleep cycle, slowest Delta waves, steepest sleep spindles
REM Sleep
Fast, irregular EEG similar to alpha waves, dreaming, relaxed muscles
James- Lange theory of emotions
We become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological reactions
Cannon- Bard theory
Emotions reflects our physiological arousal and our cognitive experience of emotion
The two- factor theory of emotion (Schacter & Singer)
The subjective experience of emotion is based on the interaction between changes in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal