Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Bottom Up Processing
Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Top Down Processing
Information processing guided by our experience and expectations
A) Receive sensory stimulation
B) Transform that stimulation into neural impulses
C) Deliver the neural information to our brain
All our senses perform three basic steps
Transduction
The process of converting one form of energy into another that our brain can use
Psychophysics
The study of how what we detect affects our psychological experiences
What did Gustav Fechner discover?
The Absolute Threshold
Absolute Threshold
The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Signal Detection Theory
Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise), assuming that our individual absolute thresholds vary with our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
Subliminal Input
Below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
Activating, often unconsciously, association in our mind, thus setting us up to perceive, remember, or respond to objects or events in certain ways
Difference Threshold
Minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time; increases with stimulus size.
Weber's Law
For an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount); exact proportion varies, depending on the stimulus
Subliminal Stimuli
Those that are too weak to detect 50% of the time
Subliminal Sensation
Such sensations are too fleeting to enable exploitation with subliminal messages.
Subliminal Persuasion
May produce a fleeting, subtle but not powerful, enduring effect on behavior
Sensory Adaptation
Refers to diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
The phenomenon enables us to focus our attention on information changes in our environment without being distracted by uninformative background stimulation.
Perceptual Set
Mental tendencies and assumptions that affect (top-down) what we hear, taste, feel, and see
Schemas organize and interpret unfamiliar information through experience
Preexisting schemas influence top-down processing of ambiguous sensation interpretation, including gender stereotypes
What determines our perceptual set?
Context Effect
A given stimulus may trigger different perceptions because of the immediate context
The light energy's wavelength, which determines the hue of a color, and its intensity
Our sensory experience of light is determined largely by?
Wavelength
Distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next
Hue
Dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Intensity
Amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness, Intensity is determined by the wave's aptitude
Cornea ... Pupil
After light enters the _____ it passes through the ______
Pupil
What part of the eye is regulated by the iris?
Iris
Responds to our cognitive and emotional states
Retina
Where does the Accommodation Process happen?
Accommodation Process
A transparent lens then focuses the rays by changing its curvature - happens on the retina
False...
It uses millions of receptor cells called rods and cones to convert particles of light energy into neural impulses and forward those to the visual cortex of the brain
True or False:
Does the Retina see a whole image
Cones
In a retina, there are Cones and Rods, which of the two are sensitive to detail and color?
Rods
In a retina, there are Cones and Rods, which of the two are sensitive to faint light?
These signals activate the neighboring bipolar cells
Activating the neighboring ganglion cells
Axons make up the optic nerve
Just Flip. Info we might need about Rods and Cones
Through the Thalamus
To the Occipital Lobe's Visual Cortex
Where do optic nerves carry information "through" and "to
False.
There are no receptor cells, causing a blindspot
True or False
There are receptor cells where the optic nerves leave the eye
Young-Helmholtz
Who is responsible for making the trichromatic (three-color) theory?
Red, Green or Blue
According to the Young-Helmholtz three-color theory, the Retina has 3 types of color receptors. What are they?
both the retina and the thalamus, some neurons are turned "on" by one color but turned off by another. - Hering's Opponent Process Theory.
Afterimages are produced when
Hering's Opponent Process Theory.
There are two additional color processes
One responsible for red versus green perception
One for yellow versus blue.
Plus a third black versus white process.
All are examples of?
1. The retina's red, green, and blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli, as the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory suggested.
2. Then, signals are then processed by the neurons system's opponent - [process cells, as Hering's theo
What are the two stages of Color Processing
Hubel and Wiesel
Whom is responsible for discovering...
1. Individual neurons (feature detectors) in the cortex respond to specific features of a visual stimulus
2. The visual cortex passes this information along to other areas of the cortex where teams of cells (supercel
Parallel Processing
Subdimensions of vision (motion, form, depth, color) are processed by neural teams working separately and simultaneously.
Described principles by which we organize our sensations into perceptions.
Provided demonstration of how, given a cluster of sensations, the human perceiver organizes them into a gestalt, a German word meaning a "form" or "whole"
Further demonstrated that
Gestalt Psychologists did what?
Proximity
We group nearby figures together
Continuity
We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuing ones
Closure
We fill in gaps to create a whole object
Depth Perception
Ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the eye are two-dimensions
Enables us to judge distance
True,
The visual cliff research showed that infants were reluctant to continue onto the glass
True or False
Infants discern depth perception?
Require information from both eyes to discern depth
Binocular Cues
Brain computes the relative distance of an object by comparing the slightly different images on object casts in our two retinas.
The greater the difference the closer the object
Retinal Disparity Cue
enable us to judge depth using information from only one eye
Monocular Cues
Relative Size
The small image of two objects of the same size appears more further away
Interposition
Nearby objects partially obstruct our view of distant objects
Relative Height
Higher objects are farther away
Linear Perspective
The converging of parallel lines indicates greater distance
Light Perspective
The converging of parallel lines
Relative Motion
As we move objects at different distances change their relative positions in our visual
The relatively permanent change in a an organism's behavior due to experience
What is Learning?
Our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with ever-changing experiences.
What is Adaptability?
4.
A. Associative Learning
B. Cognitive Learning
C. Observational Learning
D. Classical Conditioning
How many ways are there to learn?
Associative Learning
Our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence
The "events" may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences. Is what form of learning?
Cognitive Learning
We acquire mental information that guides our behavior in observational learning. Is what form of learning
Observational Learning
Learn from viewing others' experiences. Is what form of learning?
Classical Conditioning
Organisms learn to associate stimuli and thus anticipate events. Is what form of learning?
Watson on Behaviorism
What researcher believed that Psychology should be an objective science that studied only observable behavior
Pavlov
Who...
Received a medical degree at age 33
Has Two decades studying the digestive system
Earned him Russia's first Nobel Prize in 1904
Spent the Last three decades focused experiments on learning
is the father of Classical Conditioning
The Ring Ring, because Harry didn't have to learn listen out for the Ring Ring to cover his lies and deceit.
Example:
Harry has one girl, but Harry also has a side chick for when his main girl goes out of town so he doesn't have to be lonely.
Harry has set different ringtones for each girl. Ring Ring for his main and Ting Ting for his side piece
When Harry hears
Harry doesn't quickly try to silence the phone to cover his lies and deceit.
Example:
Harry has one girl, but Harry also has a side chick for when his main girl goes out of town so he doesn't have to be lonely.
Harry has set different ringtones for each girl. Ring Ring for his main and Ting Ting for his side piece
When Harry hears
The Ting Ting. Harry learned to listen out for the Ting Ting and act accordingly due to his lies and deceit.
Example:
Harry has one girl, but Harry also has a side chick for when his main girl goes out of town so he doesn't have to be lonely.
Harry has set different ringtones for each girl. Ring Ring for his main and Ting Ting for his side piece
When Harry hears
Harry quickly silences his phone to cover his lies and deceit.
Example:
Harry has one girl, but Harry also has a side chick for when his main girl goes out of town so he doesn't have to be lonely.
Harry has set different ringtones for each girl. Ring Ring for his main and Ting Ting for his side piece
When Harry hears
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli
B. F. Skinner
Who...
Was a English major and aspiring writer
Entered psychology graduate school
Went on to become modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure
Edward Throndike
Who created the "law of effect" which states that rewarded behavior is likely to recur
Rewarding Responses
_____________ _________________ are ever closer to the final desired behavior (successive approximations) and ignoring all other responses, researchers can gradually shape complex behaviors.
Reinforcer
Any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response
Primary Reinforcer
Praise or food is a type of this reinforcer
Conditional (Secondary) Reinforcer
This reinforcer leads to a Primary Reinforcer
Ex. Money
Continuous Reinforcement
When the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
produces slower acquisition of the target behavior than does continuous reinforcement
A. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
B. Variable-Ratio Schedule
C. Fixed-Interval Schedule
D. Variable-Interval Schedule
What are the 4 types of reinforcement schedules that Partial Reinforcement can be broken down into?
Fixed-Ratio Schedules
What type of Schedule
reinforces behavior after a set number of responses. and produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after delivery of the reinforcement
Variable-Ratio Schedules
What type of Schedule
provides reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses, and creates a high steady rate of response
Fixed-Interval Schedules
What type of Schedule
Reinforces the first response after a fixed time interval, and causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer
Variable-Interval Schedules
What type of Schedule
Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals, and produces a slow, steady rate of responses
Punishment
What attempts to decrease the frequency of a behavior?
Both:
Are forms of associative learning
Involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination
What are the similarities between Classical and Operant Conditioning
In classical conditioning, the organism learns associations between two stimuli, and it's behavior is responding, that is automatic
In Operant conditioning,organism learns associations between;
What are the differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
A type of brain cell that respond equally when we perform an action and when we witness someone else perform the same action
What are mirror neurons
Frontal Lobe
Where are mirror neurons located?
Memory
Persistence of learning overtime through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Evidence of Memory
Recalling information
Compares human memory to computer operations
Involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval
Define the Information processings models
Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing
Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
Define Connectionism information-processing model
1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory
2. From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal
3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.
What are the three stages of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model?
Working Memory
Involves newer understanding of short-term memory
Focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Is handled by a central executive
(declarative memories) of conscious fax and experience and Cody through conscious, effort-ful processing
What are Explicit Memories
(nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass conscious encoding track
What are Implicit Memories
Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations
Information is automatically processed about
Space; example. Where are your set of keys
Time; Ex: How close is it to the end of class
Frequency; Ex: How many times you bum
What is Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories
Effortful processing and explicit memories
With experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic
Ex: Learning to drive a car
How do we encode memory
First stage in forming explicit memories
Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic memory: picture-image memory
Echoic memory: sound memory
What is Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly such as the seven digits of the phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten
George Miller
Who created the theory of the Magic Number 7. Saying that we can store up to 7 bits of information at a time
Chunking
Organization of items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically.
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Heirarchies
Organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
Spacing Effect
Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time.
Distributed practice: Produces better long-term recall
Massive practice: Produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence
Ex. practicing parts of a musical piece on your violin; not jus
Shallow Processing
Encoding on a very basic level (word's, letters) or a more intermediate level (word's sound)
Deep Processing
Encoding semantically based on word meaning
FALSE
True or False
Memory is stored in single, specific spots?
TRUE
True or False
Perception, language, emotions require more brain networks
Is dedicated to explicit memory formation
Registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long term storage
What are two functions of the Hippocampus and the Frontal Lobe
Memory Consolidation
What is the neural storage of long term memories called
Explicit Memory
What type of memory is the Hippocampus and the Frontal Lobe are apart of?
Implicit Memory
What type of memory is the Cerebellum and the Basal Ganglia are apart of?
Forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning
What role does the Cerebellum play?
Implicit Memories
Are memories of physical skills Implicit or Explicit Memories?
Helps form memories for physical skills
What is the role of the Basal Ganglia?
Conscious memory of first three years is a blank.
Command of language and well-developed hippocampus needed.
What is infantile Amnesia?
TRUE
True or False
Our Emotions are in play even without conscious awareness
Outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain's memory-forming areas
What can emotional arousal can cause?
...
What are the 3 types of intelligence by the
via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsed
How do flashbulb memories occur?
Long-Term Potentiation
Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memories.
What is LTP?
False
The brain will not erase memories after LTP
True or False
The brain will erase memories after LTP takes place
Kandel and Schwartz
Who discovered
That pinpointed changes in sea slugs neural connection
That with learning, more serotonin released and cell efficiency increased- number of synapses increases
Memories held in storage by web of associations
Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memory suspended in this web
Best retrieval cues comes from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded
What is Memory Retrieval
Context Dependent Memory
Involves improved recall of specific information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
Ex. Taking a test while sitting in the same seat you studied and learned in
Encoding Specifically Principle
Suggests cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall
State Dependent Memory
Involves tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory)
Mood Congruent Memory
Involves tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Serial Position Effect
Involves tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list
Encoding failure
Storage Decay
Retrieval failure
Interference
Motivated forgetting
What are the some causes of forgetting
Misinformation Effect
Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.
Imagination Effect
Occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
Source Amnesia
Involves faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine.
D�j� Vu
Is sense that "I've experienced this before."
Suggests cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
False memories feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event
False memories are often a result of a faulty eyewitness testimony
Flip ME
Ceci and Burk
What two researchers studied the effect of suggestive interviewing techniques on 58 percent of preschoolers and produced false stories about one or more inexperienced events.
Sexual abuse happens
Injustice happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
Memories "recovered" under hypnosis are especially unreliable
Memories, whether real or false, can be emo
Those committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting wrongly accused adults have agreed on?
Rehearse repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use Mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not know yet
How to improve memory?
Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
What is cognition
The organization of events, objects people, and so form into mental groupings
Ex. we know a triangle has 3 sides
What are concepts?
Trial and Error
Algorithm
Heuristics
Insight
Conformation Bias
Fixation
Mental Set
Intuition
Availability Heuristics
Overconfidence
What are some ways we problem solve
Trial and Error
Attempting various situations
Algorithm
Methodical rule/step by step procedure
Heuristics
Unconscious mental short-cuts
Insight
Sudden/novel realization of a solution to a problem
Conformation Bias
Search for information that confirms our ideas
Fixation
Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
Mental Set
Tendency to repeat solutions and that have worked in the past
Intuition
Effortless, immediate, automatic thinking.
Availability Heuristics
Base our judgments on the availability of information in our memories
Overconfidence
Tendency to overestimate accuracy of our knowledge and judgements
Belief Perseverence
Clinging to our ideas in face of contrary evidence
Framing
Suggest that our judgements and decisions may not be reasoned
We fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear.
We fear what we cannot control
We fear what is immediate
We fear what is most readily available in memory.
What are some common fears throughout the world?
TRUE
True or False
Intuition is Implicit Knowledge
The ability to produce new and valuable ideas.
What is creativity?
Aptitude or the ability to learn
Intelligence
Working memory
What supports creativity
Robert Sternberg
Who proposed the 5 ingredients to creativity
Expertise
Imagining thinking skills
Venturesome personality
Intrinsic motivation
Creative environment
What are the 5 ingredients to creativity
Our way of combining words to communicate meaning
What is Language?
Basic speech sounds,
EX. F-A-T = FAT
What are Phonemes?
Elementary units of meaning
ex. Fattest
What are Morphemes?
A system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
What is Grammar?
Rule to derive meaning from sounds
What is Semantics?
Rules to order words in grammatically sensible sentences.
What is Syntax?
Noam Chomsky
Who is responsible for saying that Children are biologically prepared to learn words and use grammar
Children who have not been exposed to either a spoken or signed language by about age seven gradually lose their ability to master any language
What is the Critical Period
Aphasia
Impairment of language
Paraphasia
Switching similar words
Left frontal lobe, controls language expression and muscle movement that controls speech, naming objects
What and where is Broca's Area
Left temporal lobe controls language receptions (language comprehension)
What and Where is Wernicke's Area
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
What is Intelligence
Charles Spearmen
Who debated that people do have specific abilities and aptitudes, but also said that there is something called General Intelligence (the G factor)
L.L. Thurstone
Who attempted to measure intelligence via 56 different tests
Word Fluency
Verbal Comprehension
Spatial Ability
Perceptual Speed
Numerical Ability
Inductive Reasoning
Memory
What are the 7 clusters of primary mental abilities.
Satoshi Kanazawa
Who argues that general intelligence helps people solve novel (AKA new/unfamiliar) problems, while more common problems require a different sort of intelligence
Evidence that brain damage may diminish one's ability but not others
What is Savant Syndrome
Howard Gardner
Who proposed the theory of multiple intelligence?
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Naturalistic
And Gardner also proposed existential
What is the theory of multiple intelligence
Linguistics
What type of intelligence allows us to use words effectively?
Logical-Mathematical
What type of intelligence allows us to use reasoning and calculations?
Musical
What type of intelligence allows us to show sensitivity to rhthym and sound?
Spatial
What type of intelligence allows us to think in terms of space?
Bodily-Kinesthetic
What type of intelligence allows us to use the body effectively?
Intrapersonal
What type of intelligence allows us to understands one's own interests/goals, in tune with inner feelings,
Interpersonal
What type of intelligence allows us to understand, interact with others,
Naturalistic
What type of intelligence allows us to understand nature
Theory that there are only 3 types of intelligence
What is the Triarchic Theory
Robert Sternberg
Who created the Triarchic Theory?
1. Analytical
2. Practical
3. Creative
What are the 3 types of intelligenc by the Triarchic Theory
Well-defined problems with a "right" answer; Often assessed by intelligence tests and predictive of school success
What is Analytical Intelligence
Required for everyday tasks, but may have many possible solutions; ability to manage self, tasks, and other people (ex Motivating people)
What is Practical Intelligence
Ability to generate novel ideas; innovation
What is Creative Intelligence
K. Anders Ericson
Who says that it takes 10 years of practice everyday to be successful aka The 10-Year Rule
The ability to perceive emotions (to recognize them in faces, music, and stories)
The ability to understand emotions (to predict them and how they change and blend)
The ability to manage emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations
The abili
There are 4 components of Emotional Intelligence. What are they?
Assesses people's mental abilities and compares them with others, using numerical scores
What does an intelligence test do?
Designed to predict a person's future performance
What does an aptitude test do?
designed to assess what a person has learned.
What does an achievement test do?
Theodore Simon and Binet
What two french psychologists created an intelligence test with questions that assessed mental age (level of performance that was typically associated with a certain chronological age)
Sir. Francis Galton
Who...
Framed the nature-nurture debate
Believed the most intelligent persons were those equipped with best sensory abilities.
Attempted to measure intelligence using sensorimotor and perception-related tests he devised
Measured things such as visual acui
Lewis Terman
What Stanford Professor believed that intelligence is inherited
William Stern
Who created the IQ Test
IQ
This is the formula for?
A comparison of individual's performance with performance of others of the same age in the standardization sample.
What is Deviation IQ