Biological explanations for Panic Disorder
1.Neurotransmitters a.)Norepinephrine in locus cerulues b.)Serotonin - either too low or too high 2.Kindling a.)Poorly regulated fight or flight mechanism b.)Suffocation false alarm theory - hypersensitivity to carbon dioxide c.)Genetics - more common amo
Psychological Theories for Panic Disorder
Cognitive model - a.) Pay attention to bodily sensations b.) Misinterpret bodily sensations in negative ways c.) Snowballing catastrophic thinking
combined psychological and biological theories for panic disorder =
VULNERABILITY STRESS MODEL
Explain Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Obsessions: Recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, images that cause distress. Try to neutralize with thought or action
Commons OCD symptoms
Common obsessions involve dirt and contamination, aggressive impulses, sexual thoughts, and morality
define compulsions
Repetitive behaviors that person feels driven to perform in response to obsession as a means for reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event. Often don't make sense
What are some biological theories behind OCD
Seen as a neurological disorder 1. Frontal cortex basal ganglia thalmus a.) In OCD behavior doesn't turn off impulse 2.Depletion of Serotonin 3.Genetic link
What are some Cognitive-behavioral theories behind OCD
Compulsion reinforces by reducing anxiety
Subtypes of depression
Melancholic, Psychotic, Catatonic, Postpartum, Seasonal onset, Dysthymia
Biological theories behind depression
Genetics - twin studies - concordance for monozygotic than dizygotic twins. Adoption studies. 2.) Neurotransmitter dysregulation - Too little in synaptic cleft - too little released, too much degradation, impaired reuptake, insensitivity of receptors. Kin
Explain Beck's Cognitive theories on depression
Negative cognitive triad: Negative view of self, world, and future (Negative conclusions with limited evidence, Ignore good, Focus on bad, Exaggerate bad) Leads to heightened depression.
Learned helplessness theory
Causal attribution - explanation of why an event happened a.) Attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors b.) Expect them to recur in the future c.) Expect them to occur in many areas of life
Ruminitive response style to depression
Process of thinking: Focus on how feel instead of actively trying to do something about it. Become depressed over time and remain depressed longer. Women more likely
What is Abnormal?
1.Infrequency 2.Norm Violation 3.Personal Suffering
Behavior in Context: A Practical Approach To Psychological Disorders
The content of behavior, what a person does. The sociocultural context in which the behavior occurs. The consequences of the behavior for the person and others. impaired functioning,
Describe the DSM IV axises
a) Axis I contains major mental disorders. bAxis II includes life-long conditions like personality disorders and mental retardation. c)Axis III .d) Axis IV, .e) Axis V.
DSM no longer contains the terms
neurosis and psychosis
Schizophrenia
a pattern of severely disturbed thinking, emotion, perception, and behavior that severely impairs the ability to communicate and relate to others and disrupts most aspects of daily functioning. It is the most severe and disabling of all mental disorders.D
Biological Causes of Schizophrenia
a)Schizophrenia runs in families. 40 percent of the time if one identical twin displays schizophrenia, the other twin will too. It is unlikely that a single gene transmits the disorder. A predisposition toward schizophrenia that involves many genes may be
DSM-IV Personality Disorders
Odd-Eccentric Cluster (Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal). Anxious-Fearful Cluster (Dependent, obsessive-compulsive, and avoidant). Dramatic-Erratic Cluster (Histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, and antisocial)
Psychological Disorders of Childhood
Externalizing or Undercontrolled Disorders: Conduct Disorders (aggression, disobedience, destructivenes). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Internalizing or Overcontrolled Disorders: Separation Anxiety Disorder. Pervasive Developmental Disorders:
Psychological and Social Causes of schizophrenia
a)Maladaptive learning experiences, dysfunctional cognitive habits, and stressful family communication patterns can contribute to the appearance of schizophrenia and influence its course. (1) More severe symptoms and more relapses are seen in people whose
The Vulnerability theory
The diathesis-stress approach is embodied in the vulnerability theory which suggests that: a) vulnerability to schizophrenia is mainly biological; b) different people have differing degrees of vulnerability;c) vulnerability is influenced partly by genetic
Psychotherapy
is the treatment of psychological disorders through psychological methods, such as talking about problems and exploring new ways of thinking and acting. The biological approach to treatment depends mainly on drugs and other physical therapies. The majorit
Basic Features of Treatment
All treatments include a client or patient; a therapist who is accepted as capable of helping the client; and the establishment of a special relationship between the two. In addition, all treatments are based on some theory about the causes of the client'
Classical Psychoanalysis
Success using a "talking cure" (Focused on unconscious impulses and the resulting conflicts). Goal is to recognize unconscious thoughts and emotions.Then work through the ways they affect the client's everyday life.
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
Established by Freud. Assumes that personality and behavior reflect ego's attempt to resolve conflicts. Psychoanalysis aimed at understanding unconscious conflicts. Freud's methods have influenced almost all forms of psychotherapy.
Psychodynamic strategies for gaining glimpses into the client's unconcious
Patient's free associations,Dream analysis, "Freudian slips", and Analysis of transference
Object-relations therapy
presumes that most of the problems that bring clients to treatment stem from their relationships with others, especially with their mothers or other early caregivers. (The term object refers to a person who has had emotional significance in a client's lif
Interpersonal therapy
focuses on helping clients explore and overcome the problematic effects of interpersonal events that occur after early childhood.
Assumptions of Humanistic Therapy
Treatment is a human encounter between equals. (Not a "cure" given by an expert). Assumes clients will improve on their own. Ideal conditions established through relationship of acceptance and support. Clients responsible for choosing how they will think
Roger's Client-Centered Therapy
Necessitates unconditional Positive Regard, Empathy, and Therapist's Congruence/Genuineness
Perl's Gestalt Therapy
People create their own versions of reality. People's natural psychological growth continues only as long as they perceive, remain aware of, and act on their true feelings.Growth stops and symptoms of mental disorder appear when people are not aware of al
Perl's Gestalt Therapy Goals
to create conditions so that clients are ready to grow again.
Perl's Gestalt Therapy Methods
Methods are more direct and dramatic compared to client-centered therapy.( therapists prod clients to become aware of disowned feelings and impulses & to discard foreign feelings, ideas, and values. engage in imaginary "conversations," with other people,
Behavior Therapy and Goals
Most psychological problems are learned. (Change by learning new behaviors, not searching for underlying problems) Goals based on behavioral and social-cognitive approaches.
Some Features of Behavioral Treatment
Development of a productive relationship between therapist and client. Careful listing of the behaviors and thoughts to be changed. Therapist as a teacher/assistant. Continuous monitoring, evaluation, and adjustment of treatment
Psychological disorder
Pattern of behavior, cognition, emotion, and physical symptoms demonstrated by an individual (may include distress, impairment, increased risk for maladaption) beware: this behavior is expected in certain cases. for example during mourning
in the U.S. how many adults will experience a psychological disorder of some sort?
48% adults across lifetime. 20% of children across any given year. Both men and women. Across race.
What are some reasons why there is so much attention on psychological disorders?
Media attention.Personal interest.Cost to society. (Loss health care dollars. Loss in income. Extra dollars spent in schools.) Human suffering
Maladaptiveness
behaviors and feelings that include one or more of following features: Physically damaging. Emotional suffering. Interfere with daily life. Individual's lose touch with reality and cannot control thoughts or behaviors .
DSM IV
List of criteria characterize disorder. All clinicians use. Helpful for allowing communication. Weaknesses (Origin, course, or outcome. Not as neat and tidy as appears. Comorbidity is more rule)
3 Biological approaches to diagnosis and labeling
Structural brain, Biochemical, Genetic factors
Emotional factors in psychological diagnosis
Emotions influence what we attend to ignore, approach, and avoid. Others emotional expression. Emotion regulation. Temperament.
Address 3 different types of learning
Operant conditioning (Learn contingencies between behavior and responses), Classical conditioning (Paired associations) and Social learning (learning from watching someone else)
Address the 3 types of cognitive theories that need to be accounted for when diagnosing
Causal attributions, Control theory, Self efficacy
Social and family influences that should be accounted for when diagnosing
Bronfenbrenner (saw the world as a series of circles, like a bull's eye, with the self in the middle. 1st rung is family) Attachment theory. Family and peer contexts
Anxiety
Normative vs. psychopathology: Heart rate, sweating, rapid breathing BUT long lasting, intense, impairs daily functioning
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
excessive and not focused
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
fear, horror, hypervigilance, re-experiencing
Types of Behavioral Treatments
Behavior Therapy. Behavior Modification. Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
Techniques for Modifying Behavior
Systematic Desensitization (Progressive relaxation training, Desensitization heiarchy) Exposure Techniques (Flooding) Modeling (Assertiveness training and social skills training) Positive Reinforcement (Token economy) Extinction. Punishment. Aversive Cond
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) Cognitive restructuring. Self-instruction. Stress-inoculation
Beck's Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive restructuring. Examples of cognitive distortions (catastrophizing, all-or-none thinking, personalization)
Features of Group Therapy
Therapist can see clients interacting. Client realizes others have same difficulties. Group members can boost each others' self-confidence and self-acceptance. Clients learn from one another. Clients more willing to share feelings and are more sensitive t
Family and Couples Therapy
Involves the treatment of two or more individuals from the same "family system." Structural family therapy concentrates on family communication patterns. Couples therapy focuses on improving communication between partners.
Does Psychotherapy Work?
Value first widely questioned by Eysenck. (Conclusions criticized.) Problems with evaluating psychotherapy: (How should improvement be measured? Broad range of clients, therapists, and treatments are involved.)
Cultural Factors in Psychotherapy
Sociocultural differences can threaten the client-therapist relationship. Efforts to train students from traditionally under-served minorities. Cultural sensitive training may help treatment results.
comorbid
pertaining to a disease or other pathological process that occurs simultaneously with another
John Locke
("tabula rasa") Argued for nurture. He proposed that the infant was like a tabula rasa, or a blank slate. Adults write on that slate as they teach children about the world and how to behave in it.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
a French philosopher, argued for nature. He said that children are capable of discovering how the world operates and how they should behave without instruction from adults.
Arnold Gesell
an American psychologist, used observations to support his theory that motor skills develop in a fixed sequence of stages, relatively independent of the environment. He called this natural growth maturation. The broader term development includes maturatio
John B. Watson
argued that the environment, not nature, molds and shapes development. Watson was convinced that we learn everything, from skills to fears.
Jean Piaget
a Swiss psychologist, saw nature and nurture as contributing jointly to development, accounting for both similarities and differences among people. Heredity creates predispositions that interact with environmental influences. It is this interaction that p
How Do Nature and Nurture Work Together?
Operate together to make all people alike as human beings. (Biological maturation) Both operate to make each person unique. Individual contributions of each depends on characteristics. It is impossible to identify the separate the influences of nature and
Development of Knowledge: Piaget's Theory
Cognitive development proceeds through series of distinct periods or stages. Entering each stage requires a qualitative change from previous stage.) Schemas are the building blocks of intellectual development. (Constructed as child adapts to the environme
Assimilation
information about a new object/idea is fitted into existing schemas
Accomidation
information about the new object or idea forces a modification of existing schemas
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:
1.) Birth-2 years: Sensorimotor 2.) 2-7 years: Preoperational Period 3 .) 6-7 Concrete Operational Thought . 4.) Adolescence: Formal Operational Thought
Sensorimotor, 0-2
Mental activity and schemas confined to sensory functions. Milestone: Development of object permanence. Current view (Infants are also thinking. Do have a sense of object permanence.)
Preoperational, 2-7
During first half of period, begin to understand, create, and use symbols. During second half, begin to make intuitive guesses about the world. Cannot distinguish between the seen and unseen. Highly egocentric. Lack conservation
Concrete Operational Thought, 6-7
Ability to conserve number and amount. Thinking no longer dominated by the appearance of things. Can use simple logic and perform simple mental operations on things (But only on real, concrete objects) Can reason only about what is, not what is possible
Formal Operational Period
Adolescence. Now Can: Think logically about abstract ideas, Engage in hypothetical thinking, Question social institutions, Think about world as it might be and ought to be. Think logically and systematically about symbols and proposition
Modifying Piaget's Theory
Stage changes are less consistent and global than Piaget suggested. Knowledge and mental strategies develop at different ages in different areas. Cognitive development as rising and falling "waves
Information Processing During Childhood
Alternative to Piaget's Theory. Focus on gradual increases in children's mental capabilities. (As children get older, their information-processing skills improve. Memory also markedly improves with age.) Maturation of brain and experience contributes to t
Culture and Cognitive Development
Vygotsky focused on the social world of people. Child's mind grows through interaction with other minds. Cognitive abilities influenced by the language of the culture.
Social and Emotional Development
Mother-Infant Bond (Immediate contact not critical to forming close attachments.) Social Referencing in Infants. Communication and Recognition of Feelings
Individual Temperament
Individual style and frequency of expressing needs and emotions (Constitutionally, biologically, and genetically based) Temperament Patterns (Easy babies, Difficult babies, Slow-to-warm-up babies) Temperament Patterns (Easy babies, Difficult babies, Slow-
Attachment
A deep, affectionate, close, and enduring relationship to important figures
John Bowlby
Originally developed theory of attatchment. postulated that these attachment behaviors, such as crying and searching, were adaptive responses to separation from with a primary attachment figure--someone who provides support, protection, and care. Because
Mary Ainsworth
(1979) "the Strange Situation." She observed the reactions of year-old infants with their parent in an unfamiliar playroom and recorded how the child responded 1) Initially 2) when a stranger entered the room 3) when the parent briefly left the room, and
Strange Situation Test Results
20% were "avoidant" 65% were "secure" 15% were "anxious-resistant
Insecure Attachment Types
Avoidant,the infant avoids or ignores the mother when she returns after a brief separation . Ambivalentthe infant is upset when the mother leaves, but when she returns they vacillate between clinging to her and angrily rejecting her. Disorganized the infa
Parenting Styles
Parents try to socialize their children.There are four distinct styles to which parents adhere: (Authoritarian, Permissive, Authoritative, Uninvolved) Parenting style related to young children's social and emotional development.
Limitations of Parenting Studies
Based on correlational evidence. Based on European American families. How children perceive the discipline received may be what is influential. Correlations between parenting style and children's behavior not terribly large. No universally "best" style of
Relationship with Peers
Relationships with other children start early. During school years, peer interaction becomes more complex and structured.{Importance of friends (popular vs. rejected vs. neglected children)} Social skills determine popularity.
Important Social Skills Learned
Ability to engage in sustained, responsive interactions with peers. Ability to detect and correctly interpret other people's emotional signals. Empathy and Sympathy. Self-Regulation
Identity and Development of the Self
Ready to form a personal identity by end of early adolescence. May be affected by ethnic/social identity
identity crisis
According to Erikson, events of late adolescence precipitate an identity crisis, a struggle to create an integrated self-image as a unique person. If previous psychosocial crises were resolved well, a positive self-confident and competent identity will em
Gender Roles
General patterns of work, appearance, and behavior associated with being a man or woman. Influences on development of gender roles: (Biological factors, Social factors, Cognitive factors)
Baby X: The Effect of Gender Labels on Adult Responses to Infants
The present study investigated adult behavior while interacting with a three-month-old infant under conditions in which the child was introduced as a boy, as a girl, or with no gender information given. Gender labels did not elicit simple effects, but rat
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional, conventional, postconventional
Preconventional Level: Stages 1 & 2
Moral judgments tend to be selfish.
Conventional Level: Stages 3 & 4
Morality consists of following rules and conventions.
Postconventional Level: Stages 5 & 6
Moral judgments based on personal standards or universal principles.
Evaluating Kohlberg's Stages
First four stages appear to be universal, but not Stages 5 and 6. Moral judgments in some cultures do not always fit Kohlberg's stages. Gender differences in moral judgments? Conclusion: Moral ideas are not absolute and universal.
Learning to Behave in Moral Ways
Moral reasoning appears related to moral behavior. Requirements: Consistent modeling by parents and peers, Parents and teachers who promote moral behavior, Real-life experiences with moral issues, Situational factors that support moral actions
While interviewing Joe, Dr. Willard discovers that Joe has a genetic predisposition for schizophrenia because his uncle and mother had schizophrenia. Dr. Willard also believes the fact that Joe was homeless for several months after being expelled from sch
Diathesis-Stress
Diathesis-Stress model
a psychological theory that explains behavior as both a result of biological and genetic factors ("nature"), and life experiences ("nurture"). This model thus assumes that a disposition towards a certain disorder may result from a combination of one's gen
Mr. Herakovich was classified by several psychologists according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). One classified this problem as bipolar disorder, another as antisocial personality disorder, and a third as narcissisti
Low interrater reliability
Which of the following is not considered to be an anxiety disorder? A)Panic disorder B)Dissociative disorder C)Phobia D)Obsessive-compulsive disorder
B)Dissociative disorder
Alexia is content to stay in her house because she becomes nervous and afraid when she ventures too far from home. Alexia is probably suffering from: A)agoraphobia. B)a specific phobia. C)xenophobia. D)panic disorder.
A)agoraphobia.
xenophobia
a dislike and/or fear of that which is unknown or different from oneself. The term is typically used to describe a fear or dislike of foreigners or of people significantly different from oneself, usually in the context of visibly differentiated minorities
agorophobia
an anxiety disorder, often precipitated by the fear of having a panic attack in a setting from which there is no easy means of escape. As a result, sufferers of agoraphobia avoid public and/or unfamiliar places, especially large, open, spaces such as shop
Collins has been complaining of a variety of vague, chronic pains that run all throughout his body as well as blurry vision. After many doctor visits and medical tests, there is still no known physical cause for the symptoms that Collins has been experien
somatization disorder.
Since Jack's forced retirement, he has experienced overwhelming sadness and has withdrawn from his friends and family. He has gained twenty pounds and has been sleeping much more than usual. Most noticeably, he is no longer interested in participating in
D) major depressive disorder.
There are many misunderstandings about suicide. Which of the following statements reflects a truth about suicide?A)Females are three times more likely to attempt suicide. B)People who talk about suicide will not try it.C) Most people who attempt suicide w
A) Females are three times more likely to attempt suicide.
Ben displays odd perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors that occasionally resemble the symptoms of schizophrenia, but are not as disturbed. Ben most likely has __________ personality disorder.
A) schizotypal
The treatment of psychological disorders through analyzing problems and discussing more adaptive ways to cope is generally known as
psychotherapy
Quincy's therapist prescribed Prozac for Quincy's disorder. The therapist is most likely a
psychiatrist
A person suffering from depression wants to explore the unconscious causes of her problems. She feels they have some root in the conflicts she had with her mother when she was an infant. She would probably find it easiest to work with a
D) psychoanalyst.
Dr. Tokarz and her client, Guillermo, are discussing their relationship. Dr. Tokarz says, "I think that you are treating me the way you would treat your older sister." Dr. Tokarz is commenting on Guillermo's
transferrance
Dr. Schwartz is a humanistic psychologist. There are many things that he believes about his clients. Which of the following is not one of them? A)Their behavior is motivated by personal growth. B)Their behavior is motivated by sexual or aggressive drives.
B)Their behavior is motivated by sexual or aggressive drives.
Kayla is seeing a new client who has an extremely different set of beliefs than her own. When working with this client, Kayla feels she should be nonjudgmental and trusting, but she is having difficulty acting this way toward this particular client. In th
congruence.
Iris's therapist points out that she is nervously laughing while telling the story of her friend's recent death. He has her engage in a dialogue with her laughter. Iris's therapist is most likely a _____ therapist.
Gestalt
Systematic desensitization is an example of ______________ , and extinction is an example of ______________.
behavior therapy; behavior modification
Pedro is afraid of crossing bridges. A psychologist helps Pedro by first letting him look at bridges and then having him imagine himself standing near a bridge while being in a safe, relaxing environment. Next, the psychologist has Pedro watch a video of
systematic desensitization
Group therapy might be a better approach for dealing with drug abuse than would individual therapy because: A)the members will have to spend less time in therapy.B)the members can give one another direct, honest feedback. C)it will cost the group members
B)the members can give one another direct, honest feedback.
Alex and Tricia have been married for two years. Recently they felt like they have grown apart. Alex and Tricia plan to attend couples therapy because they know the main goal is to:A)deemphasize how they express their emotions. B)determine who is most res
C)improve their communication.
Developmental psychology is the study of
D) social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development from conception to death.
Baby Fedelia discovers a red chili-pepper on the floor and calls it "candy." After she puts the chili-pepper in her mouth, she realizes that it is not at all like candy. According to Piaget, this experience will most likely result in
B) accommodation.
Shaina started crying because she thought that her brother disappeared, when in fact he just put on his Halloween mask. Piaget would say that Shaina is in the ______________ stage and has not yet achieved ______________.
sensorimotor, object permanance
Ronnie likes to play with his uncle Steve because his uncle always has new magic tricks. However, Ronnie has difficulty understanding how Steve can be his mother's brother as well as Uncle Steve. Ronnie's thinking is most characteristic of the ___________
preoperational
Researchers have coined the term infantile amnesia to explain the fact that
B) people have few autobiographical memories before the age of three.
From the time she was born until the age of four months, Tabitha has been irregular and irritable in her style and frequency of expressing needs and emotions. Tabitha could best be described as a(n) ______________ baby.
D) difficult
According to the text, Harlow's research on attachment showed that monkeys who were socially isolated displayed an inability to
A) nurture their offspring
Two-year-old Aviva and her father are separated in the grocery store for a few minutes. When Aviva sees that her father is gone, she becomes distressed. When Aviva's father returns, Aviva smiles happily and gives him a hug. What kind of attachment does Av
secure
Emily has just graduated from high school and feels very uncertain about her future. She is overwhelmed by all the career choices that are available and doesn't know who she is or what she wants out of life. Erikson would say that Emily is going through w
B) Identity vs. role confusion
Sabrina wants to explore the mysteries of Eastern religions, but her parents insist that she follow their traditional religion. If Sabrina is not allowed to form her own religious value structure, Erikson says she will have trouble resolving the crisis at
Identity vs. role confusion