Adam Smith
1727-1790) an Englishman, refined and expanded the laissez-faire
(a policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering)
philosophy of the physiocrats in his Wealth of Nations. Published in 1776, the year
of the Declaration of
Baron de Montesquieu
(1689-1755) a French social commentator and political
thinker who lived during the Enlightenment. In Spirit of the Laws, he argued that the
powers of government�legislative, executive, and judicial�must be separated in
order to avoid despotism. When these
Cartesian Dualism:
a type of dualism most famously defended by Descartes, which
states that there are two fundamental kinds of substance: mental and material.
According to his philosophy, which is specifically called Cartesian dualism, the
mental does not have extension in
Catherine the Great:
(1729-1796) most renowned and longest-ruling female
Russian leader. She came to power after a coup d'etat and the assassination of her
husband, Peter III, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Russia was revitalized during
her reign, growing larger and stro
Denis Diderot
(1713-1784) a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was
prominent during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder,
chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopedie, the foremost encyclopedia to
be published in France at the
Enlightened Despots:
rulers of government in the 18th
social, and educational reforms inspired by the enlightenment. Among the most
prominent enlightened despots were Frederick II (the Great), Peter I (the Great),
Catherine II (the Great), Maria Theresa, Joseph II, and Leopol
Francis Bacon:
(1561-1626) an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist,
orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of
England. He remained influential through his works, especially as philosophical
advocate and practitioner of th
Francois Quesnay:
(1694-1774) a French economist of the Physiocratic school.
He is known for publishing the "Tableau economique" (Economic Table) in 1758,
which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats (believed that the
wealth of nations was derived solely
Fredrick the Great:
(1712-1786) king in Prussia of the Hohenzollern dynasty.
He is best known for his brilliance in military campaigning and organization of
Prussian armies. He attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars.
Late in his reign, he connected mos
Galileo Galilei:
(1564-1642) an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and
philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. He improved the
telescope. He discovered the law of the pendulum, which would eventually be used
to regulate clocks. He has
Immanuel Kant:
He was a German philosopher who is widely considered to
be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that human concepts and
categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the
source of morality. His major work is the C
Isaac Newton:
English physicist and mathematician and a key figure
in the Scientific Revolution. He synthesized Kepler's and Galileo's ideas together
in his Laws of Motion. His definition of physics defined what scientist knew about
the universe until Einstein conceive
Jean Jacques Rousseau:
He was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of
the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well
as the overall development of the modern political, sociological, and educational
thoughts. His famous novel Emile is
Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630) Mathematically proved the Copernican theory.
Described the three laws of planetary motion: orbits are elliptical, planets do not
move at uniform speed, the time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly
based on its distance to the su
Joseph II: (1741-1790)
Holy Roman Emperor from 1765-1790. Eldest son of Maria
Theresa. Proponent of Enlightened Absolutism. Ranked as one of the three great
Enlightenment Rulers. Policies are known as Josephinism. Issued over 6,000 edicts
and 11,000 laws. Intended to make his p
William Harvey
(1578-1657) An English physician. First person to describe
the circulation of blood in detail. Was the physician to King James I and Charles I.
Observed the bodily processes in deer carcasses found on hunts with King Charles
I. Wrote the book 'De Motu Cor
Manchester School
a school in England, where people were learning about
economics, trade, mercantilism. The first of its kind. Adam Smith, etc attended.
Maria Theresa:
(1717-1780) Only female Habsburg ruler, and the last of the
Habsburgs. 40 Year reign. Holy Roman Empress, wife of Francis I. Absolute
sovereign who ruled by a council of advisers. Evoked both esteem and affection
from her subjects. With her death, the Hou
Mary Wollstonecraft:
An 18th for women's rights. She wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, in which she
argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but only appear as though
because they lack education. She suggests both men and women should be treated
as ratio
Mercantilism:
An economic doctrine based on the theory that a nation benefits by
accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade. Dominated
western European economy policy and discourse from 16th
frequent wars in Europe and motivated colonial expansi
Nicolaus Copernicus:
(1473-1543) Wrote 'On the Revolutions of Heavenly
Spheres.' Dedicated to Pope Paul II and did not intend to challenge the Church.
Created the Heliocentric View, that the sun was the center of the universe, and
everything revolved around it. Luther and Cal
Peter the Great:
Ruled the Tsardom of Russian and later the Russian Empire. He
expanded the Tsardom into a high empire that became a major European power.
He led a cultural revolution that replaced the traditionalist and medieval social
and political system with a modern,
Philosophes:
The intellectuals of the 18th
reason to the study of many areas of learning. They had a critical eye and looked
for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They promoted a "republic
of letters" that crossed national boundaries and allowed intelle
Physiocrats
a group of economists who believed that the wealth of nations was
derived solely from land agriculture. The first well-developed theory for economics.
Originated in France. 'Tableau Economique' was written by Francois Quesnay in
1759, and was their foundi
Rene Descartes:
(1596-1650) Used logic and step-by-step sequences. Discourse on
Method, advocated the use of deductive reasoning. "I think, therefore I am," saying
that he could be sure of nothing except for the fact that he himself was existing.
Father of modern philoso
Scientific Revolution:
The emergence of modern science during the early modern
period, when developments in the Sciences transformed views of society and
nature. Began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance and continued
throughout the late 18th
Heavenly Spheres marks the
The Social Contract (1762)
Book written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Theory about
the best way to set up a political community to avoid existing problems during the
time. Helped inspire political reforms or revolutions in Europe, especially in France.
Argued against the idea that mona
Thomas Hobbes:
(1588- 1679) English philosopher, scientist, and historian best
known for his work on political philosophy. His book Leviathan established the
foundation of most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social
contract theory. Hobbes viewed
Tycho Brahe:
(1546-1601) Europe's leading astronomer in the late 16th century.
Born in Denmark. Built the best observatory in Europe, ended up proving the
Heliocentric Theory. Said that 'stellae novae' (supernovae) were not atmospheric
comets, as Aristotle had theoriz
Voltaire:
(1694- 1778) French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher
famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church and his advocacy
of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.
He was a versatile