Define: humanism.
The scholarly interest in the study of the classical texts, values, and styles of Greece and Rome. Humanism contributed to the promotion of a liberal arts education based on the study of the classics, rhetoric, and history.
Define: Christian humanism.
A branch of humanism associated with northern Europe. Like their Italian counterparts, the Christian humanists closely studied classical texts. However, they also sought to give humanism a specifically Christian content. Christian humanists like Desideriu
Define: vernacular.
The everyday language of a region or country. Miguel de Cervantes, Geoffrey Chaucer, Dante, and Martin Luther all encouraged the development of their national languages by writing in the vernacular. Desiderius Erasmus, however, continued to write in Latin
Define: new monarchs.
European monarchs who created professional armies and a more centralized administrative bureaucracy. The new monarchs also negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church. Key new monarchs include Charles VII, Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and
Define: taille.
A direct tax on the French peasantry. The taille was one of the most important sources of income for French monarchs until the French Revolution.
Define: reconquista.
The centuries-long Christian "reconquest" of Spain from the Muslims. The Reconquista culminated in 1492 with the conquest of the last Muslim stronghold, Granada.
Define: indulgence.
A certificate granted by the pope in return for the payment of a fee to the church. The certificate stated that the soul of the dead relative or friend of the purchaser would have his time in purgatory reduced by many years or cancelled altogether.
Define: anabaptist.
Protestants who insisted that only adult baptism conformed to Scripture. Protestant and Catholic leaders condemned Anabaptists for advocating the complete separation of church and state.
Define: predestination.
Doctrine espoused by John Calvin that God has known since the beginning of time who will be saved and who will be damned. Calvin declared that "by an eternal and immutable counsel, God has once and for all determined, both whom he would admit to salvation
Define: huguenots.
French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin.
Define: politiques.
Rulers who put political necessities above personal beliefs. For example, both Henry IV of France and Elizabeth I of England subordinated theological controversies in order to achieve political unity.
Define: columbian exchange.
The interchange of plants, animals, diseases, and human populations between the Old World and the New World.
Define: mercantilism.
Economic philosophy called for close government regulation of the economy. Mercantilist theory emphasized building a strong, self-sufficient economy by maximizing exports and limiting imports. Mercantilists supported the acquisition of colonies as sources
Define: putting-out system.
A preindustrial manufacturing system in which an entrepreneur would bring materials to rural people who worked on them in their own homes. The system enabled entrepreneurs to avoid restrictive guild regulations.
Define: joint-stock company.
A business arrangement in which many investors raise money for a venture too large for any of them to undertake alone. They share the profits in proportion to the amount they invest. English entrepreneurs used joint-stock companies to finance the establis
Define: absolutism.
A system of government in which the ruler claims sole and uncontestable power. Absolute monarchs were not limited by constitutional restraints.
Define: intendants.
French royal officials who supervised provincial governments in the name of the king. Intendants played a key role in establishing French absolutism.
Define: fronde.
A series of rebellions against royal authority in France between 1649 and 1652. The Fronde played a key role in Louis XIV's decision to leave Paris and build the Versailles Palace.
Define: robot.
System of forced labor used in Eastern Europe. Peasants usually owed three or four days a week of forced labor. The system was abolished in 1848.
Define: junkers.
Prussia's landowning nobility. The Junkers supported the monarchy and served in the army in exchange for absolute power over their serfs.
Define: scientific method.
The use of inductive logic and controlled experiments to discover regular patterns in nature. These patterns or natural laws can be described with mathematical formulas.
Define: philosophes.
Eighteenth century writers who stressed reason and advocated freedom of expression, religious tolerance, and a reformed legal system. Leading philosophes such as Voltaire fought irrational prejudice and believed that society should be open to people of ta
Define: deism.
The belief that God created the universe but allowed it to operate through the laws of nature. Deists believed that natural laws could be discovered by the use of human reason.
Define: general will.
A concept in political philosophy referring to the desire or interest of a people as a whole. As used by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who championed the concept, the general will is identical to the rule of law.
Define: enlightened despotism.
A system of government supported by leading philosophes in which an absolute ruler uses his or her power for the good of the people. Enlightened monarchs supported religious tolerance, increased economic productivity, administrative reform, and scientific
Define: enclosure movement.
The process by which British landlords consolidated or fenced in common lands to increased the production of cash crops. The Enclosure Acts led to an increase in the size of farms held by large landowners.
Define: agricultural revolution.
The innovations in farm production that began in eighteenth-century Holland and spread to England. These advances replaced the open-field agriculture system with a more scientific and mechanized system of agriculture.
Define: physiocrats.
Group of eighteenth-century French economists led by Francois Quesnay. The physiocrats criticized mercantilist regulations and called for free trade.
Define: invisible hand.
Phrase coined by Adam Smith to refer to the self-regulating nature of a free marketplace.
Define: parlements.
French regional courts dominated by hereditary nobles. The Parlement of Paris claimed the right to register royal decrees before they could become law.
Define: girondins.
A moderate republican faction active in the French Revolution from 1791 to 1793. The Girondin Party favored a policy of extending the French Revolution beyond France's borders.
Define: jacobins.
A radical republican party during the French Revolution. Led by Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror. Other key leaders included Jean-Paul Marat, Georges-Jacques Danton, and the Comte de Mirabeau. The Marquis de Lafayette was
Define: sans-culottes.
The working people of Paris who were characterized by their long working pants and support for radical politics.
Define: levee en masse.
The French policy of conscripting all males into the army. This created a new type of military force based upon mass participation and a fully mobilized economy.
Define: thermidorian reaction.
Name given to the reaction against the radicalism of the French Revolution. It is associated with the end of the Reign of Terror and reassertion of bourgeoisie power in the Directory.
Define: legitimacy.
The principle that rulers who have been driven from their thrones should be restored to power. For example, the Congress of Vienna restored the Bourbons to power in France.
Define: balance of power.
A strategy to maintain an equilibrium, in which weak countries join together to match or exceed the power of a stronger country. It was one of the guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna.
Define: liberalism.
Political philosphy that in the nineteenth century advocated representative government dominated by the propertied classes, minimal government interference in the economy, religious toleration, and civil liberties such as freedom of speech.
Define: conservatism.
Political philosophy that in the nineteenth century supported legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches. Conservatives favored gradual change in the established social order.
Define: nationalism.
Belief that a nation consists of a group of people who share similar traditions, history, and language. Nationalists argued that every nation should be sovereign and include all members of a community. A person's greatest loyalty should be to a nation-sta
Define: romanticism.
Philosophical and artistic movement in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Europe that represented a reaction against the Neoclassical emphasis upon reason. Romantic artists, writers, and composers stressed emotion and the contemplation of natur
Define: chartism.
A program of political reforms sponsored by British workers in the late 1830s. Chartist demands included universal manhood suffrage, secret ballots, equal electoral districts, and salaries for members of the House of Commons.
Define: zollverein.
A free-trade union established among the major German states in 1834.
Define: carbonari.
A secret revolutionary society working to unify Italy in the 1820s.
Define: luddites.
A social movement of British textile artisans in the early nineteenth century who protested against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution. The Luddites believed that the new industrial machinery would eliminate their jobs. The Luddites respond
Define: utilitarianism.
A theory associated with Jeremy Bentham that is based upon the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number." Bentham argued that this principle should be applied to each nation's government, economy, and judicial system.
Define: utopian socialists.
Early nineteenth-century socialists who hoped to replace the overly competitive capitalist structure with planned communities guided by a spirit of cooperation. Leading French utopian socialists such as Charles Fourier and Louis Blanc believed that proper
Define: marxism.
Political and economic philosphy of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They believed that history is the result of a class conflict that will end with the triumph of the industrial proletariat over the bourgeoisie. The new classless society would abolish pri
Define: second industrial revolution.
A wave of late-nineteenth-century industrialization that was characterized by an increased use of steel, chemical processes, electric power, and railroads. This period also witnessed the spread of industrialization from Great Britain to western Europe and
Define: social darwinism.
The belief that there is a natural evolutionary process by which the fittest will survive. Wealthy business and industrial leaders used Social Darwinism to justify their success.
Define: realpolitik.
The politics of reality"; used to describe the tough, practical politics in which idealism and romanticism play no part. Otto von Bismarck and Camillo Benso di Cavour were the leading practitioners of realpolitik.
Define: syndicalism.
A radical political movement that advocated bringing industry and government under the control of federations of labor unions. Syndicalists endorsed direct actions such as strikes and sabotage.
Define: autocracy.
A government in which the ruler has unlimited power and uses it in an arbitrary manner. The Romanov dynasty in Russia is the best example of an autocracy.
Define: duma.
The Russian parliament created after the revolution of 1905.
Define: imperialism.
The policy of extending one country's rule over other lands by conquest or economic domination.
Define: sphere of influence.
A region dominated by, but not directly ruled by, a foreign nation.
Define: fourteen points.
President Woodrow Wilson's idealistic peace aims. Wilson stressed national self-determination, the rights of small countries, freedom of the seas, and free trade.
Define: bolsheviks.
A party of revolutionary Marxists, led by Vladimir Lenin, who seized power in Russia in 1917.
Define: new economic policy.
A program initiated by Vladimir Lenin to stimulate the economic recovery of the Soviet Union in the early 1920s. The New Economic Policy utilized a limited revival of capitalism in light industry and agriculture.
Define: existentialism.
Philosophy that God, reason, and progress are all myths. Humans must accept responsibility for their actions. This responsibility causes an overwhelming sense of dread and anguish. Existentialism reflects the sense of isolation and alienation in the twent
Define: relativity.
A scientific theory associated with Albert Einstein. Relativity holds that time and space do not exist separately. Instead, they are a combined continuum whose measurement depends as much on the observer as on the entities being measured.
Define: totalitarianism.
A political system in which the government has total control over the lives of individual citizens.
Define: fascism.
A political system that combines an authoritarian government with a corporate economy. Fascist governments glorify their leaders, appeal to nationalism, control the media, and repress individual liberties.
Define: kulaks.
Prosperous landowning peasants in czarist Russia. Joseph Stalin accused the kulaks of being class enemies of the poorer peasants. Stalin "liquidated the kulaks as a class" by executing them and expropriating their land to form collective farms.
Define: keynesian economics.
An economic theory based on the ideas of twentieth-century British economist John Maynard Keynes. According to Keynesian economics, government can spend their economies out of a depression by using deficit-spending to encourage employment and stimulate ec
Define: appeasement.
A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in the hopes of avoiding war. Associated with Neville Chamberlain's policy of making concessions to Adolf Hitler.
Define: containment.
The name of U.S. foreign policy designed to contain or block the spread of Soviet policy. Inspired by George F. Kennan, containment was expressed at the Truman Doctrine and implemented in the Marshall Plan and the North American Treaty Organization (NATO)
Define: decolonization.
The process by which colonies gained their independence from the imperial European powers after World War II.
Define: de-stalinization.
The policy of liberalization of the Stalinist system in the Soviet Union. As carried out by Nikita Krushchev, de-Stalinization meant denouncing Joseph Stalin's cult of personality, producing more consumer goods, allowing greater cultural freedom, and purs
Define: brezhnev doctrine.
Assertion that the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need. The Brezhnev Doctrine justified the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
Define: detente.
The relaxation of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. Detente was introduced by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and President Richard Nixon. Examples of detente include the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), expanded trade wit
Define: solidarity.
A Polish labor union founded in 1980 by Lech Walesa and Anna Walentynowicz. Solidarity contest Communist Party programs and eventually ousted the party from the Polish government.
Define: glasnost.
Policy initiated by Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s. Glasnost resulted in a new openness of speech, reduced censorship, and greater criticism of Communist Party policies.
Define: perestroika.
An economic policy initiated by Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s. Meaning "restructuring," perestroika called for less government regulation and greater efficiency in manufacturing and agriculture.
Define: welfare state.
A social system in which the state assumes primary responsibility for the welfare of its citizens in matters of health care, education, employment, and social security. Germany was the first European country to develop a state social welfare system.