Primary Sources
-a person who has direct knowledge of a situation or who actively participated in the event.
Provide essential information (the "who," "what," "when," "where," and "why") that will appear in a news story's opening paragraphs. Investigative journalists als
Direct quote (discuss appropriate usage in news story)
-an exact, word-for-word report of what a person says. Always placed within quotation marks.
Quotes enliven a news story and make it more attractive to readers. However, they should only be used when they add color and humanity to the reporting. Devoting
Burning (how can it create a more dramatic photograph)
-Burning is the opposite of dodging. Burning increases the exposure of light within a specific portion of the print in order to darken that area of the photograph.
A photojournalist uses burning to add drama to elements within the overall image. In digita
Explain the concepts of an effective lead for a newspaper story
The lead (also spelled "lede") comprises the first few sentences of a news story. A well-written lead is critical for attracting the reader's attention. It functions as the hook that will compel the reader to continue and read the entire article.
A lead s
Define secondary sources and their use in journalism
Secondary sources evaluate and interpret information obtained through a primary source. When a government document is issued (for example, the monthly U.S. job report and unemployment rate), journalists often seek out economists and employment experts to
Define and indirect quote and discuss its use in a news story
An indirect quote does not reproduce exactly a person's remarks, but it is faithful to the meaning of the remarks. Using indirect quotes in tandem with direct quotes can help maintain the flow and narrative of a news article.
Explain the rule of thirds, and discuss how it helps in composing an effective photograph.
The rule of thirds refers to a visual concept that divides an image into nine parts by using two horizontal and two vertical lines. These lines cross the image one-third of the way up and down.
The dominant subject in a photograph should appear at one of
Define "trapped white space," and discuss reasons for avoiding it in newspaper design
Trapped white space occurs when a blank space appears on the page. It can occur between a headline and a graphic/illustration. In addition, white space can occur when a news story's text is too short to fill space down to the next headline.
Trapped white
Explain how the growth of tabloid journalism has changed the manner in which traditional media outlets cover the news
The emergence of the Internet since 2000 has generated a round-the-clock interest in sensational stories. Websites such as the Drudge Report (news), TMZ.com (celebrities) and Deadspin.com (sports) are often the first outlets to report the misbehavior of p
Explain how contrast is important in reproducing effective graphics and photographs
Contrast refers to the degree of tones in an image. Since many student publications print in black-and-white, having the widest possible contrast range between "pure" black and "pure" white is important. Poorly printed photographs have too much of a grayi
Define the wide-angle lens and its use in photojournalism
In the 35mm format, a wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length (generally 24mm to 28mm) than the standard 50mm lens. This lens is arguably the most versatile lens in the photojournalist's bag; a photo taken with a wide-angle lens will appear more dramat
Describe an editorial and its likely location in a newspaper
Editorials represent the individual opinion of a journalist regarding a specific event or issue. These articles generally appear within the editorial section of the newspaper; if editorials appear elsewhere in the paper, they must be labeled clearly.
Explain the most efficient software for producing a CD-ROM
Hypermedia or multimedia authoring software can produce a visually interesting and easy to use CD-ROM. In each case, the software connects the print and electronic elements of the disc. Links can be included to take the user from graphics to video, from p
Define bias, and discuss why journalists should avoid bias in their work
Bias in journalism refers to conscious (or unconscious) decisions to cover certain stories, or the manner in which journalists produce stories for publication.
As a practical matter, reporters cannot mention everything in a story. One of the skills of jou
Describe how "dodging" is used to develop a photograph.
Dodging is a technique that manipulates the exposure of certain areas within a photograph. The darkroom technician decreases the exposure of light to a certain area in order to lighten that specific area the effect is to lighten that specific area.
Describe the concept of freewriting, and discuss how this technique can help a journalist
Journalists can use freewriting to work through writer's block. This technique involves writing for a set time about any subject as quickly as possible, without concern for transition, proper punctuation, or grammar. While the result will lack sufficient
Provide examples of common types of plagiarism
Using a complete sentence or significant phrase verbatim and with credit constitutes cut-and-paste plagiarism. Writers should set off such content with quotation marks and identify the source. Lifting complete paragraphs and merely switching around a few
Explain why journalists should eliminate jargon as much as possible when creating a news story.
Jargon is language used by people who work in a particular field or share a common interest. While people within each specific field understand these terms, such terms often are meaningless to the typical newspaper reader.
When writing a story, journalist
Explain a fish-eye lens and its uses in photojournalism.
A fish- eye lens is a wide-angle lens that uses a distorted perspective to produce an interesting photograph. In the 35 mm format-the most common film format in photojournalism-a fish eye lens is about 16 mm in length.
A photograph taken with a fish-eye l
Define the elements of a "hard news" story.
Hard news" articles are factual, time-sensitive accounts of recent events. These stories generally appear in the first few pages of the newspaper's national, local, and sports sections.
Explain how photojournalism students can ensure fair and balanced coverage for all readers
Like consumers of other products, the audience for journalism continues to grow more ethnically and racially diverse. Patronizing or offending these readers will drive them away from your publication.
To promote fairness and sensitivity, photojournalists
Explain the concept of modular page design
Modular page design can save time when creating either a printed or an electronic version of a student newspaper. In modular design, a basic template is created in which elements such as the sidebar and bottom of the page are repeated throughout the publi
Describe a telephoto lens, and discuss how it can produce dramatic photographs.
A telephoto lens (also known as a "long lens") is literally longer than the standard lens used in the 35 mm format. The telephoto length generally starts at 85 mm, compared to the 50 mm standard lens.
The telephoto lens magnifies distant objects, compress
Describe the elements of a feature news article and analysis.
Feature stories, also known as "soft news," are longer-form articles and profiles about people, issues, and events. Analysis examines the reactions and impact of a hard-news story.
Define yellow journalism, and describe how it exposed the dangers of ignoring ethical principles in reporting and editing
Yellow journalism, which peaked in the 1890s, was a style of writing and presentation that distorted and exaggerated its content in order to create controversy and increase sales.
Yellow journalism had its genesis in New York City newspapers owned by Jose
Give an example of unethical manipulation of an image.
Digitally altering a photo by removing and/or adding elements to the original (e.g., photoshopping) is considered unethical if the changes are not noted in the caption/cutline.
List the design and presentation concepts introduced by yellow journalism.
Publishers who emphasized yellow journalism (such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst) were obsessed with increasing the circulation of their newspapers. To attract attention, these papers emphasized large illustrations on their front pages. Th
Define plagiarism, and describe how to recognize it within a news story
Plagiarism is defined as using the language, thoughts, and ideas of another author without proper credit. The key to recognizing plagiarism lies in knowing the difference between information considered common knowledge versus original ideas put forth by o
Define the advantages and disadvantages of the inverted-pyramid format in journalism
The inverted pyramid is a standard journalism format because it does two things very well: it quickly tells the reader what has happened, and it helps the reporter focus on key facts and identify them within the first few paragraphs.
On the other hand, th
Explain the best way to help a student write a coherent and convincing editorial.
As with other forms of writing, organizing one's thoughts and ideas is an essential first step in creating a good editorial. A journalism teacher should assist the student in developing an outline to help organize the editorial's main ideas.
An outline wi
Describe the phenomenon of bumping headlines, and discuss reasons for avoiding this practice in publication design.
Bumping headlines occurs when the same point size is used for the headlines of two different stories. This confuses the reader and muddles the overall message. Varying the size of headlines enhances readability.
Describe the elements of good journalistic writing
Good journalistic writing features short sentences and paragraphs, the use of active verbs, and the avoidance of jargon and vague words. Writers should keep their own opinions out of the story, and the instructor should promote the use of correct grammar
Describe the hourglass approach to writing a news story.
The hourglass approach to writing a news story presents a hybrid of the narrative and the inverted-pyramid formats. The first part of the story employs the inverted pyramid format to communicate the basic facts. Next comes the "turn," a transitional devic
Explain reasons for the use of copyediting symbols in journalism
Copyediting symbols serve as a kind of shorthand when editing a news story. In a deadline environment, a copyeditor can mark corrections quickly on a hard copy by using these symbols (e.g., a period with a circle around it means "insert period at the end
Describe clarity, and discuss reasons for its importance in journalism
Clarity attracts a reader's attention and maintains his or her interest throughout the entire article. Student reporters can develop this skill by writing with an active voice, fostering curiosity regarding the world around them, and presenting the inform
Define the qualities of a reliable Web site
In terms of the information presented, a reliable Web site is comprehensive and focused, and it presents a balanced viewpoint. The site should show evidence of recent updates and should feature ways to access content posted earlier (a search engine within
Explain the best methods for storing darkroom chemicals
Because darkroom chemicals leach oxygen, a large jug can go bad sitting on the shelf. To slow down the oxygenation process, chemicals should be stored in small, dark bottles (16-20 ounces is best). In addition, keep bottles tightly capped and as full as p
Explain the parts of a digital camera (used for still images)
While digital cameras share several components with standard film cameras (lenses, apertures, etc.), they also have many additional features.
These features include a liquid crystal display (LCD) that shows the photographer the result of the picture just
Explain the skills required to create an effective script for a broadcast-news story.
A reporter must take a different approach to writing copy for a televised or radio news story than for a print story. Broadcast copy is written to be spoken; in contrast, consumers silently read print copy.
Broadcast scripts must complement the accompanyi
Describe the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Tinker v. Des Moines
Tinker v. Des Moines, decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1969, involved three Iowa students (two in high school, on in junior high school) who wore black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The Des Moines school board suspended the three students and c
Provide an example of the limits that student journalists face in using material found on the Internet
Time constraints are unavoidable in the field of Journalism. Reporters who access information online (e.g., text or a cartoon graphic) cannot use the material without proper credit. If time constraints prevent the reporter from obtaining the necessary per
Define some of the factors that affect media coverage
Students must be mindful of how business decisions affect media coverage and how online content has changed the role of journalism in contemporary society.
Material obtained online also raises questions regarding accuracy, legitimacy, and copyright issues
Provide an example of an ethical manipulation of images in news publications
A photograph that incorporates special techniques to enhance the presentation of a fireworks display is considered an ethical manipulation, provided the graphic is marked clearly as a photo-illustration. Other permissible special techniques include the us
Describe the responsibilities of the audio technician, the graphics operator, and the production assistants during a broadcast news program.
The audio technician is the sound version of the technical director, controlling the microphones, audio tape, and music for televised news program. The audio technician selects the various audio elements through a mixing board.
Define editorializing, and discuss reasons for avoiding it in a news story.
Editorializing occurs when reporters insert their own opinions into a news story. Such opinions should be limited to the editorial section of a newspaper, and they should be labeled clearly as such.
Opinions expressed in a straight news story should be li
Describe brevity, and discuss why it is essential to journalistic writing.
Consumers of printed and electronic media increasingly are pressed for time. They also have many more options for getting their news. As a result, consumers likely will ignore a poorly written story that meanders or fails to maintain its essential focus.
Describe the uses and effects of electronic technology (both digital and video technology) in photojournalism.
Digital photography offers several ways to manipulate, reproduce, and transmit images. The editing process for digital photography represents one of the biggest differences between film and digital photography. Instead of waiting for film to be developed,
Define the stop bath and fixer, and discuss their use in developing black-and-white photographs.
The stop bath is the second step in the development process. It lowers the pH value of the developer on the film; once the value drops below a certain threshold, the developer stops working. The most common stop bath is acetic acid, sold in concentrate fo
Explain how the writing of a column differs from the writing of a "straight" news story.
Straight news involves basic reporting; e.g., covering an issue and telling readers what happened. Columnists, by contrast, are essentially opinion writers. They tend to have a regular following of readers who feel they can gain knowledge and insight from
Define the characteristics that make the World Wide Web an effective medium for journalism
Journalism on the World Wide Web has several advantages: capacity, flexibility, permanence, immediacy, and interactivity. Online forms of journalism can present far more information than can be shown on television. In addition, online journalism dissemina
Define the role of advocacy in mass media
The mass media (which now includes online sources such as blogs, videos, and podcasts) can advocate for business concerns or social issues.
The goal of social-issue advocacy is to influence public policy. Examples include ads to help elect political candi
Explain how journalists use databases as sources of information
Databases are organized collections of information often categorized according to content (e.g., bibliographic, statistical, document-text).
In order to find relevant information quickly, journalists should set clear definitions for their search subjects.
Describe the responsibilities of the graphics operator and the production assistants during a broadcast news program.
The graphics operator creates on-screen titles and graphics to appear on screen, and this person is responsible for the accuracy of these graphics and titles. Production assistants operate the teleprompters and set up the rigging (pulleys and cables) that
Describe how to use darkroom chemicals safely when processing photographs.
Darkroom chemicals usually are packaged as either a powder or a liquid concentrate. Powders tend to be less expensive and bulky; however, they dissolve more slowly in water, and some of the powder can become airborne when mixed.
Chemicals should be mixed
Define "citizen journalism," and discuss its role in a newspaper.
Citizen journalism refers to the collection of news and information by individuals without formal journalism training.
Examples of citizen journalism include photos taken with a camera phone at a breaking-news scene, and blogs that cover local issues.
Define stored sources, personal sources, and observational sources, and discuss how reporters utilize these types of sources.
Stored sources are information found in written or electronic files. Reporters use stored sources in the early stages of developing a story; these kinds of sources are helpful especially when researching an investigative article.
Personal sources are peop
Briefly describe the Freedom of Information Act
The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) is a 1966 federal law that allows for the disclosure of information of U.S. government documents. A 1996 amendment extended the law to make records available in electronic formats and provide reading rooms for such fo
Explain the importance of film selection in photojournalism.
Even with advancements in color and digital photography, most student newspapers continue to print photographs in black-and-white due to cost considerations.
While no single film serves all purposes, two good black-and-white film speeds to consider are AS
Define audience segments, and discuss their use in measuring the number of people who read a newspaper or watch a news program.
Segmentation is a process that divides the audience into groups based on age, gender, income, education, and other factors.
A basic knowledge of those persons who consume media helps both the editorial and advertising sides of a news operation. Editors an
Define a signature, and discuss how it relates to publication design.
A signature is an expression of page counts for a magazine. A typical magazine signature has 16 pages, because the typical web offset press can print 16 pages on one sheet of paper (8 pages per side).
Each signature is folded, inserted and bound with the
Describe why using manual camera controls can make for a more dramatic photograph.
Technological advances such as electronic flash and autofocus have made commercial cameras almost foolproof. However, knowledge of manual controls can help a photojournalist create a dramatic image far more memorable than a mere snapshot.
A slower f-stop
Define "conflict of interest," and give reasons for avoiding it in journalism.
A conflict of interest occurs when a reporter or editor has a connection to a story or issue that might influence how they write and cover the story.
Some conflicts of interest are obvious (e.g., a reporter who owns stock in a company as part of the busin
Explain why the technical qualities of a photograph are important when selecting a photo for use in a school publication.
A published photograph must attract the reader's eye and visually draw him or her to that page. Good technical qualities include sufficient lighting as well as accurate reproduction of the negative during development.
An overexposed photograph will appear
Describe the role of planning in designing photo layouts for a school publication.
A good photo layout should complement the text of a story and include photos of various sizes. If photos extend across two pages of an issue, the images should be completely viewable, and not cut off by space between the pages.
For photo layout planning a
Describe persuasive writing and its relevance to writing a news story.
Persuasive writing takes a position for or against an issue. As such, it attempts to convince a reader to take action.
This style is not a relevant choice for writing a straight news story, since the objective of straight news is to present both sides of
Explain why journalism products should respond to all audience segments.
With different backgrounds and learning styles, high-school students reflect myriad changes in society. This diversity will influence how they use--and interact with--media, and how they develop their communication skills.
From a practical standpoint, add
Explain how journalists can use the Internet as an information source.
Online research can serve as a good first step when researching a story. However, journalists should keep in mind that anyone with access to an Internet server could upload material to the Web.
As such, journalists should examine online information closel
Describe the darkroom technique of cropping a print.
Cropping is useful when a portion of a photo negative needs to be enlarged, or when extraneous items within the negative detract from the overall image.
To crop a print in the darkroom, raise the head of the enlarger until only the portion of the negative
Explain the various parts of a film camera (e.g., a camera used to record still images).
The lens draws light into the camera and focuses it on the film plane.
The shutter opens and closes to control the length of time that light strikes the film. The most common types of shutter are the leaf shutter (located in front of the film plane).
The
Explain how time constraints differ between print journalism and non-print journalism.
Simply put, print reporters lack time and space; broadcast reporters lack time and time.
Deadlines exist in print journalism because presses must begin printing the paper at a specific time. Because delaying a press run is costly and inefficient, all stor
Explain how journalists use the Freedom of Information Act (FIOA) to uncover fraud and corruption.
Under the FOIA, journalists make requests to obtain records of the operations and performance of the federal government. All states have their own version of the federal law (e.g., "Open Records Act," "Right to Know Act"), and state law often covers recor
Define leading lines and discuss their use in photo composition.
Within a photographic image, leading lines lead the eye to another point in the photo. Some examples of possible leading lines in photographs include a winding road, a path in the forest, or a fence that carries out to the horizon.
By attracting the viewe
Define the factors that determine a photograph's overall interest and effectiveness.
Factors such as the content, composition, and technical qualities of a photograph determine whether a student newspaper should publish the photo. A particularly strong photo can fill front-page space, or an image that complements a front-page story can be
Describe effective ways to use and manipulate light in a photograph.
The amount of light required for a photograph depends on the location and the time of day. Pictures taken indoors or at night often require flash photography. Outdoor sports photography utilizes a flash to freeze action.
At the same time, use of flash pho
Define a catchline, and discuss its role in publication design.
A catchline is an abbreviated title that appears above a photo cutline (and below the photograph). The goal of a catchline is to be creative with two or three words and attract the reader's attention.
Define matte and glossy paper stock, and identify which type of paper is most useful for a student publication.
Matte paper has a non-reflective, non-textured surface. Glossy paper is coated with a compound (usually kaolinite or calcium carbonate) that give the paper a shiny finish.
Magazines and similar publications commonly use glossy paper; matte paper tends to
Describe the proper manner of citing sources in a news story.
Reporters should identify specifically all sources within a news story, including name (and title, if applicable).
Furthermore, reporters should attribute quotes to the one who provided the quote. Such attribution should be clear. Reporters also should sp
Describe the concepts that make a journalism story newsworthy.
The most important factors in making a story newsworthy are timeliness, significance, proximity, and prominence. In a digital world, readers are accustomed to continuous news updates, so a story must be current and relevant. Readers are not interested in
Describe how the penny press influenced the evolution of daily journalism.
The penny press was a 19th-century phenomenon that extended journalism's audience beyond the upper social classes. Typical newspapers of that era targeted the upper classes, used documents as their primary sources, and cost about six cents per issue.
In c